IRLF 


B    3    TOfl 


THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 


PRESENTED  BY 

PROF.  CHARLES  A.  KOFOID  AND 
MRS.  PRUDENCE  W.  KOFOID 


The  Stork. 


The  Lioness  and  her  whelps. 


SCRIPTURE    NATURAL    HISTORY; 

CONTAINING    A     DESCRIPTIVE    ACCOUNT     OF    THE 

QUADRUPEDS,  BIRDS,  FISHES,  INSECTS,  REPTILES, 

SERPENTS,  PLANTS,  TREES,  MINERALS,  GEMS,  AND  PRECIOUS  STONES, 

MENTIONED    IN    THE    BIBLE. 


BY    W  M.    CARPENTER. 


¥  IRST    AMERICAN,    FROM    THE     LATEST    LONDON    EDITION,   WITH    IMPROVJM*KTS, 

' 

BY    REV.    GORHAM    D.    ABBOTT. 


ILLUSTRATED  BY  NUMEROUS  ENGRAVINGS. 


TO    WHICH    ARE  ADDED 

SKETCHES  OF  PALESTINE,  OR  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


BOSTON: 

LINCOLN,    EDMANDS    &    CO. 
1833. 


«NT«RED    ACCORDING    TO    ACT     OF    CONGRESS,    IN    THE   TEAR    EIGH- 
THS*   HUNDRED    THIRTY-THREE,    BY   LINCOLN,    EDMANDS  &    CO.,  Ill 

TH»  CLERK'S  OFFICE  OF  THE  DISTRICT  OF  MASSACHUSETTS. 


BOSTON: 

JAMES  B.  DOW,  PRINTER, 
122  WA8HINGTON-ST. 


C 


PREFACE 

TO   THE   THIRD   ENGLISH    EDITION. 


IN  preparing  this  edition  of  the  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HIS- 
TORY for  the  press,  the  author  has  carefully  revised  it  through- 
out, and  made  such  alterations  in  style  and  matter  as  will, 
he  hopes,  render  it  more  worthy  of  public  acceptance  than  the 
former  edition.  In  doing  this,  he  has  borne  in  mind  a  sug- 
gestion put  forth  in  a  favorable  critique  upon  the  first  impres- 
sion in  the '  Eclectic  Review,'  and  by  divesting  the  work  of  some 
of  the  dryness  and  tedium  of  criticism,  and  making  it  less 
diffuse,  he  has  sought  to  give  it  a  more  '  popular,'  though  not 
a  less  useful  character.  These  alterations  have  enabled  him, 
without  omitting  any  thing  of  real  value  and  utility,  to  bring 
the  volume  into  a  smaller  compass,  and  publish  it  in  a  more 
attractive  form. 

Since  the  publication  of  the  former  edition  of  this  work, 
the  author  has  been  driven,  by  the  force  of  circumstances,  and 
a  deep  sense  of  moral  responsibility,  to  devote  much  of  his 
time  and  attention  to  objects  of  an  apparently  different  aspect 
to  those  pursued  in  biblical  literature,  and  which  are  regarded 
with  considerable  jealousy  and  suspicion  by  a  large  proportion 
of  the  religious  public.  This  is  not  the  place  to  justify  the 
course  he  has  taken,  or  to  defend  the  motives  by  which  he  has 
been  actuated,  It  is  enough  to  say,  that  his  attachment  to 
biblical  pursuits  is  as  strong  as  ever,  and  that  his  conviction 
of  the  paramount  importance  and  infinite  value  of  pure  and 
undented  religion  grows  with  his  growth,  and  strengthens  with 
his  strength.  To  assist  in  removing  out  of  the  way  some  of 
those  impediments  to  the  spread  of  religion,  which  the  sullen 
discontent  and  reckless  profligacy  produced  by  the  inordinate 
and  inadequately  remunerated  labor,  combined  with  the  super- 
induced ignorance,  of  the  manufacturing  population  almost 
every  where  present,  he  has  encountered  the  perils  and  priva- 


6  PREFACE. 

tions  of  imprisonment.  A  consciousness  of  the  purity  of  his 
motives,  however,  amply  compensates  him  for  all  these — and 
much  more. 

The  indulgent  reader  will  pardon  the  intrusion  of  these  re- 
marks. They  have  been  deemed  to  be  necessary,  in  conse- 
quence of  certain  misrepresentations  which  some  persons  have 
either  wilfully  or  ignorantly  put  forth,  as  to  the  author's  con- 
tinued attachment  to  the  truths  of  Revelation. 

April  5,  1832. 


PREFACE 

TO    THE    FIRST    EDITION. 


HAVING  stated  the  nature  and  object  of  his  work  in  the  In- 
troduction to  the  following  pages,  it  is  only  necessary  that  the 
author  should  here  subjoin  a  few  words,  by  way  of  explana- 
tion. 

There  being  two  editions  of  Dr.  Harris's  '  Natural  History 
of  the  Bible '  extant  in  this  country,  (England)  it  is  natural 
that  the  public  should  inquire  upon  what  grounds  a  second 
work  of  this  description  is  presented  to  their  notice.  The  an- 
swer to  this  inquiry  may  be  very  brief. — Dr.  Harris's  work  is 
by  far  too  critical  for  general  purposes,  and  contains  but  little 
'  Natural  History.'  It  furnishes  valuable  materials  to  aid  the 
student  in  his  investigations ;  but  to  the  unlearned  reader  it 
presents  few  attractions ;  while  its  frequent  conjectural  criti- 
cisms, and  utter  destitution  of  evangelical  sentiment  and  feel- 
ing, render  it  by  no  means  desirable  as  a  medium  of  religious 
instruction. 

In  every  part  of  the  following  work,  the  author  has  given 
the  authorities  upon  which  his  statements  are  founded  ;  and 
conceiving  that  literary  property  is  as  sacred  and  inviolable  as 
that  of  every  other  species,  he  has  conscientiously  pointed  out 
the  immediate  sources  of  his  information.  This  may  be  some- 
times found  operating  to  the  prejudice  of  others  ;  but  he  can- 
not be  answerable  for  such  a  result. 

In  availing  himself  of  the  labors  of  his  predecessors,  the 
author  has  frequently  found  the  highest  authorities  supporting 
conflicting  opinions :  in  such  cases,  he  has  decided  to  the  best 
of  his  judgment,  and  where  the  limits  assigned  to  his  work 
would  permit  of  it,  he  has  laid  before  the  reader  the  grounds 
of  his  decision. 

The  author  cannot  close  these  prefatory  observations  with- 
out acknowledging  his  particular  obligations  to  Mr.  Charles 


8  PREFACE. 

Taylor,  the  late  erudite  and  indefatigable  editor  of  Calmet  ; 
and  also  to  Professor  Paxton.  To  the  former,  for  the  result 
of  much  laborious  investigation,  to  identify  the  subjects  of 
Scripture  Natural  History  ;  and  to  the  latter,  for  many  felici- 
tous illustrations  of  particular  passages  of  the  Sacred  Writ- 
ings. The  chief  inducement  with  the  author  to  avail  himself 
so  freely  of  the  writings  of  the  last-mentioned  author,  was 
their  evangelical  tone,  and  their  strong  tendency  to  elevate 
the  religious  feelings  of  the  reader.  Written  under  the  influ- 
ence of  a  deep  but  enlightened  piety,  Professor  Paxton's  '  Il- 
lustrations of  the  Holy  Scriptures  '  present  a  striking  contrast 
to  the  cold  and  lifeless  'Illustrations'  generally  furnished  in 
biblical  works. 

With  reference  to  the  embellishments,  it  is  only  necessary 
to  say,  that  those  objects  have  been  selected  which  are  the 
least  known  in  this  country :  and  the  best  authorities  have 
been  chosen  for  their  representation.  The  author's  thanks 
are  due  to  the  respective  artists,  for  the  fidelity  and  taste  with 
which  they  have  executed  their  work. 

Relying  upon  the  same  indulgence  that  has  been  extended 
to  his  former  efforts  in  the  cause  of  biblical  literature,  the  au- 
thor presents  the  following  work  to  the  acceptance  of  the  re- 
ligious public.  May  HE  whose  cause  it  aims  to  promote,  ren- 
der it  subservient  to  his  gracious  purposes  ! 


PREFACE. 


THIS  book  was  originally  intended  to  be  but  a  re-print  of 
the  English  work,  by  Carpenter.  His  volume,  however,  was 
found  to  contain  so  much  of  Biblical  criticism,  and  Classical 
learning,  as  to  be  adapted  almost  exclusively  to  the  use  of  the 
Greek  and  Hebrew  scholar. 

It  was  therefore  thought  best  to  revise  Carpenter  ;  to  omit 
'hose  classical  discussions,  and  verbal  criticisms,  which  al- 
though interesting  and  valuable  to  the  orientalist,  must,  from 
their  very  nature,  be  of  little  service  to  common  readers ;  and 
to  bring  the  substance  of  the  Scripture  illustrations,  found  in 
his  volume,  within  the  reach  of  the  readers  of  the  English 
Bible. 

Such  a  revision  of  Carpenter's  volume,  with  alterations  and 
additions,  was  but  just  accomplished  and  ready  for  the  press, 
when  the  third  London  edition  of  his  work  camfe  to  hand, 
published  under  countenance  of  the  *  Book  Society  for  promo- 
ting Religious -Knowledge/  in  which  the  design  above  stated 
was  fully  pursued,  and  that  too,  with  evidence  of  much  judg- 
ment and  good  taste. 

The  very  favorable  and  commendatory  notices  which  his 
first  editions  had  received  from  the  '  Eclectic  and  Monthly  Re- 
views,' '  The  Athenaeum,'  '  The  Christian  Remembrancer,' 
'The  Home  Missionary,'  'The  Baptist,'  <  The  Methodist/ 
'  The  Congregational/  '  The  Evangelical/  and  '  Imperial 
Magazines/  and  other  publications,  induced  him  to  prepare  an 
edition  better  calculated  for  popular  use  and  general  circula* 
tion. 

1  In  doing  this/  the  author  remarks  in  his  preface,  *  he  has 
borne  in  mind  a  suggestion,  put  forth  in  a  favorable  critique 
upon  the  first  impression,  in  the  "  Eclectic  Review/'  and  by 
divesting  the  work  of  some  of  the  dryness  and  tedium  of  crit- 
icism, and  making  it  less  diffuse,  he  has  sought  to  give  it  a 
more  "  popular,"  though  not  a  less  useful  character.  These  al- 
terations have  enabled  him,  without  omitting  any  thing  of  re- 
al value  and  utility,  to  bring  the  volume  into  a  smaller  com- 
pass, and  a  more  attractive  form.' 


10  PREFACE. 

It  was  therefore  only  justice  to  Mr.  Carpenter,  to  re-publish 
his  own  revision  of  this  Book.  This  has  been  done,  with  a  few 
alterations  and  additions,  which  it  is  hoped  will  render  it  not 
less  acceptable  and  useful  to  readers  among  us.  The  work  is 
intended  to  be  a  plain  and  simple  account  of  the  subject  of 
which  it  treats,  to  be  illustrated  with  numerous  engravings,  in 
a  manner  suited  to  the  comprehension  of  those,  who  have  little 
or  no  acquaintance  with  Classical  or  Scientific  Learning. 

The  English  Editors  arid  Reviewers  speak  in  the  highest 
terms  ofthe  indefatigable  industry  displayed  in  Mr.  Carpenter's 
volume.  But  we  cannot  withhold  our  regret  that  they,  who 
have  noticed  with  so  much  approbation  the  result  of  his  labors, 
should  have  unconsciously  awarded  credit,  that  takes  from  an- 
other his  due. 

We  cannot  but  regard  the  course  pursued  by  Mr.  Carpen- 
ter as  very  extraordinary  and  very  unjust.  And  we  respect- 
fully invite  his  English  friends  and  ours,  to  compare  his  vol- 
ume, with  the  work  of  our  distinguished  countryman,  the  Rev. 
Dr.  Harris. 

In  1793,  Dr.  H.  published  his  first  'Natural  History  ofthe 
Bible,'  which  met  in  this  country  and  in  Europe  the  honorable 
and  flattering  reception  it  deserved. 

Twenty-seven  years  afterwards,  in  1820,  he  published  a 
second  volume  under  the  same  title.  He  says  in  the  preface 
of  this,  '  I  kept  on  my  table,  an  interleaved  copy,  (of  his 
first  work)  and  in  the  course  of  my  reading,  transferred  to  it, 
the  additional  information,  which  I  collected.  Desirous  of 
pursuing  the  investigation  still  farther,  I  procured,  with  con- 
siderable expense,  many  valuable  books,  which  I  had  not,  be- 
fore, the  opportunity  of  consulting.  In  fine,  I  have  re-exam- 
ined every  article,  with  better  knowledge  and  greater  care  ; 
have  transcribed  and  new-modelled  the  whole,  and  made  such 
amendments  and  additions  throughout,  as  rerider  this  rather 
a  new  work,  than  a  new  edition  ;  and  to  its  completion  and 
perfection,  the  studies  and  acquisitions  of  more  than  twenty- 
five  years  have  contributed. 

'  I  have  endeavored  to  substantiate  every  article,  which  I 
have  introduced,  by  proofs  stated  with  all  possible  clearness, 
and  to  illustrate  it  by  criticisms  and  explanations;  yet  I  lay 
claim  to  no  praise,  but  that  of  having  brought  into  a  regular 
form,  such  information  as  I  could  collect,  from  the  best  and 
most  unexceptionable  sources.  In  the  most  unrestrained  terms 
I  acknowledge  that  I  have  borrowed  from  all  authors  of  es" 
tabjished  reputation,  with  freedom, 


PREFACE.  11 

'  I  have  subjoined  a  list  of  the  principal  books  which  I  have 
consulted,  (a  catalogue  of  fifty  three  different  works)  with 
a  reference  to  the  edition,  which  I  used,  and  would  st.ill  men- 
tion, that  in  the  notes,  (scattered  through  the  volume)  will 
be  found  references  to  more  than  twice  the  number,  in  the 
following  catalogue. 

'  In  short,  I  have  spared  neither  labor  nor  expense,  in  the 
collection  of  materials ;  and  have  aimed  to  make  my  work  a 
useful  and  valuable  treasure  of  information,  and  worthy  of  the 
approbation  of  the  public. 

'  Of  my  authorities  and  the  use,  which  I  have  made  of  them, 
it  becomes  me  to  speak  with  grateful  acknowledgments.  The 
first  and  principal  of  these  is  Bochart,  who  in  his  Hierozoicon 
has,  in  the  most  learned  researches,  traced  the  names  of  the 
animals  mentioned  in  Scripture  through  the  different  lan- 
guages and  dialects  of  the  East,'  &,c.  &c.  *  He  had  the  oppor- 
tunity of  consulting  the  Nat.  Hist,  of  Damir,  and  other  Ara- 
bian authors. 

'  The  Plysique  Sacr^e  of  Scheuchzer,  in  eight  volumes  folio, 
is  a  magnificent  work,  with  which  a  noble  friend  in  Paris 
supplied  me.  It  has  contributed  greatly  to  enrich  my  arti- 
cles ' 

He  thus  goes  on  to  enumerate  some  of  the  most  distinguish- 
ed authors,  who  hnd  been  of  assistance,  in  treating  of  the 
PLANTS,  the  FISHES,  INSECTS,  and  Precious  Stones. 

Among  these  principal  authorities,  are  the  names  of  Hiller, 
in  the  f tier opfiijti con t  Celsius  in  his  Hierobotanicon,  Diosconi- 
des,  the  Elder  Pliny,  Alpinus,  Rauwolf,  Hasselquist,  Shaw, 
Russell,  Forskal,  Bruce,  Rudbeck,  Lemnius,  Braunius,  and 
Calrnet. 

The  Lexicons  of  Castel,  Buxtorf,  Meninski,  and  Parkhurst 
were  the  companions  of  his  labors.  The  commentaries  of 
Micliaelis  and  the  illustrations  of  Paxton,  we  may  add  to  swell 
the  list. 

Under  these  circumstances  it  is,  that  Mr.  Carpenter  takes 
up  the  work  of  Dr.  Harris,  and,  changing  the  arrangement 
from  an  Alphabetical  to  a  Scientific  one,  making  some  omis- 
sions and  some  alterations,  and  inserting  some  valuable  ad- 
ditions, claims  the  work  as  his  own.  A  comparison  of  any 
of  the  important  articles  in  the  two  books,  such  as  that  on 
Flax,  the  Behemoth,  the  Eagle,  the  Fox,  but  much  more  a 
comparison  of  the  two  entire  works  will  show  how  much  of  Mr. 
Carpenter's  matciials  were  made  ready  to  his  hand. 


12  PREFACE. 

But  this,  is  not  all ;  with  an  unkind  and  ungenerous  insin- 
uation in  his  preface,  calculated  to  injure  Dr.  Harris,  if  not 
designed  to  prevent  the  circulation  of  Ids  work,  and  of  course, 
a  comparison  of  the  two,  which  might  prove  unpleasant  to 
Mr.  Carpenter,  he  announces  to  the  world,  that  the  '  utter  des- 
titution of  evangelical  sentiment  in  the  volume,'  from  which 
he  had  gathered  and  gleaned,  more  than  from  all  other  works 
together,  '  renders  it  unfit  for  general  use.' 

To  despoil  an  author  of  the  results  of  his  literary  labors,  who 
with  indefatigable  zeal,  and  distinguished  ability  and  success 
has  been  serving  the  cause  of  Science  and  Biblical  Literature 
with  his  time,  his  talents,  his  labors  and  his  money,  for  more 
than  a  quarter  of  a  century,  and  then  to  brand  him  as  a  here- 
tic, in  order  to  conceal  the  robbery,  does  not  appear  to  us  as 
evincing  much  of  the  spirit  or  practice  of  piety. 

Would  that  Mr.  Carpenter,  with  all  that  he  has  borrowed 
from  the  work  of  Dr.  Harris,  had  taken,  also,  a  note  append- 
ed to  its  ingenuous  and  unassuming  preface  : 

'  Est  benignum,  et  plenum  ingenui  pudoris,  fateri  per  quos 
profiteris.'  Plin.  Nat.  Hist.  Pref. 

Justice  at  least  should  have  been  given  to  one  who  so  early 
and  ably  led  the  way,  in  the  study  of  the  *  Natural  History  of 
the  Bible.' 

It  argues  little  in  favor  of  the  purity  or  liberality  of  our 
principles,  if  we  have  no  eye  to  discover  nor  heart  to  acknow- 
ledge the  high  Literary,  Critical  and  Scientific  merit  of  anoth- 
er, because,  forsooth,  his  Theological  opinions  may  be  different 
from  our  own. 

The  circulation  of  Dr.  Harris's  work  in  Europe  for  many 
years  (it  having  passe  J  three  editions  in  London)  is  a  testi- 
mony to  its  value,  not  easily  set  aside.  And  we  cannot  but 
hope,  that  he  will  favor  the  literary  world,  with  another  edi- 
tion of  his  invaluable  volume,  with  such  additions  and  improve- 
ments as  the  lapse  of  a  dozen  years  will  have  enabled  him  to 
make.  And  we  are  sure  that  Literary  and  Scientific  men  of 
every  country,  who  alone  are  able  to  appreciate  these  labors, 
will  award  to  him,  the  full  measure  of  thanks,  which  he  de- 
Serves.  There  is  perhaps  no  living  writer  who  has  devoted 
so  much  attention  to  this  particular  subject,  or  has  such  a 
mass  of  materials  at  command. 

Perhaps  some  may  think,  that  the  writer  of  this  preface  is 
a  friend,  or  acquaintance  of  Dr.  H.,  writing  under  his  eye 
and  perhaps  at  his  suggestion,  and  therefore  affects  to  feel  so 


PREFACE.  13 

sensibly  the  injuries  of  the  respected  Author.  The  writer 
deems  it  as  due  to  himself,  to  say,  that  he  is  neither  kinsman, 
nor  acquaintance,  arid  has  never,  to  his  knowledge,  had  the 
pleasure  of  seeing  the  Rev.  Dr.  Harris.  And  the  latter,  as 
deeply  as  he  must  feel  his  own  wrongs,  does  not  dream  that 
such  a  preface  as  this  is  in  hand,  or  probably  never  heard  of 
its  writer.  He,  if  he  knows  his  own  heart,  would  have  been 
equally  ready  to  do  the  same  justice,  that  he  has  attempted 
here,  to  Mr.  Carpenter,  had  he  been  the  aggrieved  and  any 
other  individual  the  aggressor. 

But  to  return  to  the  volume  now  presented  to  the  Christian 
csmmutiity,  it  is  sincerely  hoped,  that  it  may  contribute,  in 
some  good  degree,  to  increase  and  gratify  the  interest  which 
the  subject  of  it  has  at  this  day  so  genera  ly  awakened. 

The  American  Editor  can  truly  say,  that  the  delightful  il- 
lustrations of  scripture,  which  have  been  continually  coming 
before  his  mind,  in  the  progress  of  his  examinations,  have 
made  him  more  sensible  than  ever,  how  much  of  real,  intel- 
lectual and  moral  pleasure  and  improvement  is  lost  by  a  want 
of  acquaintance  with  the  Natural  History  of  the  Bible. 

And  therefore  does  he  most  cordially  commend  this  study 
and  this  volume  to  the  notice  of  all,  and  especially  of  the 
young,  who  desire  a  fuller  acquaintance  with  the  beauties 
and  treasures  of  the  Sacred  Oracles. 

,  GORHAM  D.  ABBOTT. 

Boston,  Oct.  24M,  1832. 


CONTENTS. 


Introductory  Remarks  by  the  American  Editor 25 

CHAPTER  I.— ANIMALS. 

SECTION  I. — Domestic  Animals: 

The  Elephant — the  Camel — the  Horse — the  Asa — 
the  Mule — the  Ox — the  Sheep — the  Goat — the 
Dog— the  Hog .35 

SECTION  II. — Ferocious  Wild  Beasts  : 

The  Lion— the  Leopard— the  Wolf— the  Hyena— the 
Fox,  or  Jackal— the  Wild  Boar— the  Bear. 83 

SECTION  III. — Wild  Inoffensive  Animals: 

The  Wild  Ass — the  Rock  Goat  or  Ibex — the  Antelope — 
the  Hart  and  the  Hind — the  Hare  and  the  Coney — • 
the  Mouse — the  Mole — the  Bat 101 

SECTION  IV. — Dubious  Animals : 

The  Behemoth — the  Leviathan — the  Unicorn 108 

CHAPTER  III.— BIRDS. 

INTRODUCTORY  SECTION — Reviewing  the  Structure  and 
Instincts  of  the  Feathery  Tribes,  and  also  their  Biblical 
Appellations 129 

SECTION  I. — Air  Birds  : 

The  Eagle — the  Hawk  and  the  Kite — the  Raven — the 
Dove  and  the  Turtle— the  Swallow— the  Sparrow 132 

SECTION  II. — Land  Birds  : 

The  Ostrich— the  Peacock— the  Owl— the  Partridge— 
the  Cock  and  Hen — the  Quail 147 


16  CONTENTS. 

SECTION  III. — Water  Birds: 

The  Crane — the  Stork — the  Pelican— the  Cormorant 159 

SECTION  IV. — Dubious  Birds  : 

The  Cuckoo— the  Heron — the  Swan 165 

CHAPTER  TV.— FISHES. 

Biblical  Appellations— Principal  Divisions— Fish  of  Galilee 
— Preserver  of  Jonah 171 

CHAPTER  V  —REPTILES. 

SECTION  I. — Lizards  : 

The  Tortoise,  or  Lizard— the    Ferret,  or   Gecko— the 

Chameleon — the  Frog 173 

SECTION  II. — Serpents  : 

The  Viper— the  Adder  and  Asp — the  Cockatrice — the  Ser- 
aph, or  Fiery  Serpent— the  Dragon — the  Horseleach — 
the  Snail 180 

SECTION  III. — Worms  : 

Singular  Construction — Biblical  Appellations — Tenacity 
of  Life — Various  kinds  mentioned  in  Scripture 195 

CHAPTER  VI.— INSECTS. 

INTRODUCTORY  SECTION. — -Number  and   Variety — Won- 
derful Construction 197 

SECTION  I. —  Wingless  Insects  : 

The  Scorpion — the  Spider — the  Flea — the  Louse 201 

SECTION  II. — Winged  Insects  : 

The  Fly— the  Hornet— the  Gnat— the  Moth— the  Bee— the 
Ant— the  Locust 205 

SECTION  III. — Dubious  Insects  : 

The  Beetle— the  Canker  Worm— the  Caterpillar— the 
Palmer  Worm , 2SU 


CONTENTS.  17 


BOTANY. 

INTRODUCTORY  SECTION. — Import  of  the  Term — Dis- 
tinctions between  the  Animal  and  Vegetable  World — 
Structure  of  Vegetables — Differences  among  the  Three 
Classes  of  Vegetables — Vegetable  Life — Biblical 
Arrangement 227 

CHAPTER  I.— GRASS  AND  HERBS. 
Herbaceous  Productions 232 

SECTION  I. — Grain  : 

Methods  of  Preparing  Grain  for  Food — Corn  used  as  an 

Emblem  of  a  Future  State 234 

Wheat— Barley— Rye— Millet 237 

SECTION  II. — Reeds: 

The  Bulrush  of  Papyrus— the  Cane— the  Flag 239 

SECTION  III. — Pulse: 

Lentils— Beans 242 

SECTION  IV. —  Weeds  : 

Suphim— Cockle— Fitches 243 

CHAPTER  II.— PLANTS  AND  SHRUBS. 

SECTION  I. — Aromatic  Plants : 

Camphor — Aloes— the   Myrtle — the    Lily— Cummin- 
Anise — Hyssop — the  Juniper 246 

SECTION  II. — Cucumber  Plants  : 

The  Cucumber— the  Melon— the  Mandrake 252 

SECTION  III. —  Thorny  Shrubs  and  Plants  : 

The  Thorn— the  Bramble— Nettles 254 

SECTION  IV. — Onions  and  similar  Plants  : 

Onions— Garlick— Leeks 257 

SECTION  V.—Flax. .  .  .258 


18  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  III.— TREES. 

INTRODUCTORY    SECTION. — Scripture    Names — Sacred 
Groves 260 

SECTION  I. — Fruit   Trees  : 

The  Apple  or  Citron  Tree— the  Almond  Tree— the  Chest- 
nut Tree — the  Fig  Tree — the  Sycamore  Tree— the  Palm 
Tree — the  Olive  Tree — the  Pomegranate — the  Vine. . .  .262 

SECTION  II. — Aromatic   Trees: 

The  Cedar  Tree — the  Balsam  Tree — the  Cypress  Tree — 
the  Lign  Aloe— the  Rose  Tree 282 

SECTION  III. — Woody  Trees  : 

The  Oak,  or  the  Terebinth— the  Fir  Tree— the  Poplar— 
the  Willow— the  Mustard  Tree 288 

CHAPTER  IV.— DOUBTFUL  PLANTS  AND  TREES. 

The  Bay  Tree— the  Pine  Tree— the  Shittah  Tree— the 
Almug  Tree— the  Box  Tree— the  Gourd— the  Heath- 
Hemlock — Wormwood — Tares— Mallows— Manna 294 

CHAPTER  V.— VEGETABLE  SUBSTANCES. 

SECTION  I. —  Woods : 

Thyine— Cassia— Cinnamon 302 

.    a 
SECTION  II. — Fruits  : 

Nuts— Husks 305 

SECTION  III. — Gums  : 

Frankincense — Galbaniun — Myrrh — Stacte 307 

GEOLOGY: 

INTRODUCTORY  SECTION. — Import  of  the  Term — Object 
of  the  Science — Non-eternity  of  Matter — Origin  of  the 
Earth — Review  of  the  Plutonic  and  the  Neptunian 
Theories — Scripture  Account  of  the  Formation  of  the 
Earth — Objections  to  the  Mosaic  Account — Alluvial 
Marbles — Traditions  of  the  Deluge — Its  Moral  and 
Physical  Causes — Changes  and  Formations  in  the 
Earths  and  Stratas — Geological  Researches  confirma- 
tive of  the  History  of  Moses 311 


CONTENTS.  19 

CHAPTER  I.— STONES. 

Adamant — Agate— Alabaster — Amethyst — Amianthus — 
Beryl — Carbuncle — Chalcedony — Chrysophrasus — 
Crystal— Diamond— Emerald— Jacinth— Jasper— Mar- 
ble— Onyx  and  Sardonyx — Pearls — Ruby — Sapphire — 
Sardius  or  Sardine— Topaz 323 

CHAPTER  II.— EARTHS. 

Brimstone— Pitch— Salt— Soap— Nitre— Vermilion— Clay .  .333 

CHAPTER  III.— METALS. 
Gold-Silver— Amber— Copper— Iron-Lead— Tin 345 


SKETCHES  OF  PALESTINE. 

History  of  Geography — Climate  and  Natural  History — 
Jerusalem — Manners  and  Customs  of  the  Jews — Bead 
and  Relic  Trade — Mount  Zion — Mount  of  Olives — 
Bethlehem— The  Dead  Sea — Lake  of  Tiberias— The 
Vale  of  Nazareth — Mount  Tabor — Route  to  Nablous 
and  Tiberias - 355 


LIST    OF    CUTS. 


FACE. 


1.  Frontispiece 2 

2.  Group  of  Animals 34 

3.  The  Elephant 35 

4.  Elephants  drinking 40 

5.  Loaded  Elephant 43 

6.  TheCamel 45 

7.  Caravan  in  the  Desert 48 

8.  Bactrian  Camel 49 

9.  The  Horse 55 

10.  The  Ass 58 

11.  The  Ox 65 

12.  Treading  out  Corn 69 

13.  Oxen  Ploughing 70 

14.  The  Goat 76 

15.  The  Dog 78 

16.  The  Hog 81 

17.  The  Lion 83 

18.  The  Leopard 90 

19.  The  Hyajna 93 

20.  The  Fox,  or  Jackal 95 

21.  •  The  Bear 99 

22.  The  Rock  Goat,  or  Ibex 104 

23.  The  Antelope 106 

24.  The  Hart 108 

25.  The  Hare 112 

2(>.  The  Mouse 114 

27.  The  Mole 115 

28.  The  Bat 117 

29.  The  Hippopotamus 118 

30.  Group  of  Birds 128 

31.,  The  Eagle 132 

32.  The  Hawk 135 


22  LIST  OF  CUTS. 

33.  The  Raven 137 

34.  The  Dove 140 

35.  The  Swallow 144 

36.  The  Sparrow 145 

37.  Ostriches \ 147 

38.  The  Peacock 152 

39.  The  Owl 153 

40.  The  Partridge 155 

41.  The  Quail     158 

42.  The  Crane 159 

43.  The  Stork 160 

44.  The  Pelican 162 

45.  The  Heron 165 

46.  The  Swan 167 

47.  Group  of  Fishes 170 

48.  The  Tortoise 173 

49.  The  Chameleon 175 

50.  The  Cockatrice 185 

51.  The  Dragon 189 

52.  The  Snail 193 

53.  The  Scorpion 200 

54.  The  Spider 201 

55.  TheHornet ...208 

56.  The  Bee ,,.211 

57.  The  Ant . . . , , . . 213 

58.  The  Locust .........216 

59.  The  Beetle ,, 221 

00.    Fruits  and  Flowers 226 

61.  Grinding  Grain ....235 

62.  Wheat 237 

63.  Flax 258 

64.  The  Fig... 264 

65.  Palm  Trees 268 

66.  The  Olive.. 293 


SCRIPTURE 
NATURAL    HISTORY 


INTRODUCTORY  REMARKS, 

BY  THE   AMERICAN   EDITOR. 


THERE  is  no  subject,  that  can  be  named,  in  so  few  words, 
that  embraces  such  an  extent  and  variety  of  interesting  and 
useful  information  as  the  Natural  History  of  the  Bible.  It- 
includes  within  the  range  of  its  various  objects,  everything 
that  can  invite  the  attention,  or  reward  the  inquiries  of  the 
Natural  Philosopher.  It  furnishes  subjects  for  investigation, 
which  have  engaged  the  interest  of  the  most  gifted  minds> 
and  those  too,  under  the  guidance  of  inspiration,  during  a 
period  of  more  than  Four  Thousand  Years.  It  leads  the  mind 
back  to  the  hour,  when  the  world  was  in  its  infancy,  and  when, 
at  its  birth,  the  '  morning  stars  sang  together,  and  all  the 
sons  of  God  shouted  for  joy.'  And  it  extends  down  beyond 
the  time  when  the  Saviour  of  the  world  ascended,  in  the 
clouds  of  heaven,  to  his  Father's  throne. 

The  whole  kingdom  of  nature,  in  all  the  multiplicity  and 
variety  of  its  objects,  is  brought  to  view  in  the  '  Perfect 
Book,'  with  a  clearness  of  light,  which  is  not  elsewhere  to  be 
found. 

The  simple  yet  truly  philosophical  arrangement,  presented 
in  the  *  sublimely  beautiful  narrative  of  the  Creation,'  clear- 
ly shows  that  the  pen  of  the  sacred  historian  was  guided  by 
the  hand  of  a  master. 

But  there  are  various  other  considerations  which  render 
this  a  subject  of  the  deepest  interest.  In  the  early  ages  of  the 
world,  so  far  as  we  know,  Literature,  Science,  and  Poetry, 
were  cultivated  solely  by  the  prophets,  or  servants  of  the  Most 
High.  We  have  no  evidence  that  other  minds  were  devoted 
to  such  pursuits.  And  the  writers  of  the  Bible  had  no  oppor- 
tunity to  resort  to  the  writings  of  idolatrous  heathen  around 
them,  to  illustrate  or  enforce  their  own  eloquence  and  song. 
There  was  no  Classical  Literature  then,  to  furnish  learned 
3 


26  INTRODUCTION. 

allusions.  And  the  spirit  of  sacred  elqquence  and  poesy  was 
free  to  expatiate  in  the  wide  field  of  nature,  that  was  open 
and  unoccupied  before  her.  And  almost  every  natural  object, 
in  the  firmament  above,  in  the  earth  beneath,  or  in  the  mighty 
waters,  was  made  to  contribute  to  her  ends.  With  inimitable 
skill,  have  the  sacred  penmen  drawn  the  richest  of  imagery 
and  the  happiest  and  most  forcible  illustrations,  for  their  '  high 
themes,'  from  these  endless  resources.  The  splendor  of  the 
sun,  the  beauty  of  the  stars,  the  genial  influence  of  the  clouds 
and  the  dew,  the  fragrance  of  the  violet,  and  the  flavor  of 
fruit: — the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms,  in  all  their  rich 
variety ;  everything  animate  and  inanimate,  that  adorns  and 
enriches  earth ;  whatever  gives  interest  and  sublimity  to  the 
mighty  deep,  either  in  the  majesty  of  its  angry  mountain 
wave,  or  in  the  mirror  of  its  peaceful  repose, — are  all  brought 
<o  bear  upon  the  object  of  the  Poet  and  Prophet,  in  their 
efforts  to  enlighten  and  to  save  the  world. 

Hence  it  is,  that  an  intimate  and  accurate  acquaintance 
with  the  natural  history  of  the  East,  is  so  interesting  and  es- 
sential to  the  intelligent  reader  of  the  Bible. 

It  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  the  sacred  writers  possessed, 
in  all  respects,  the  same  degree  or  kind  of  knowledge,  that 
we  do,  in  the  various  departments  of  Science  and  Philosophy. 
According  to  all  the  ordinary  laws  of  the  human  mind,  in  ad- 
vancing in  knowledge  and  in  skill  in  acquiring  it,  there  must 
have  been  very  different  degrees  of  information  entertained, 
at  different  periods,  during  the  long  course  of  4000  years.  In 
all  truth,  except  what  is  exclusively  revealed  from  heaven, 
the  human  mind  makes  progress.  So  that  it  is  by  no  means 
to  be  expected  that,  on  all  subjects  of  Natural  Science,  and  in 
.every  instance,  the  sacred  writers  will  accord,  in  their  views, 
with  our  modern  philosophy. 

I  cannot  perhaps  better  illustrate  this  sentiment,  than  by 
reference  to  the  opinions  of  some  of  the  sacred  writers,  at 
least,  respecting  the  form  and  structure  of  the  earth.  I  am 
indebted  for  the  illustration  to  an  eminent  divine  and  biblical 
student,  to  whom,  I  believe,  it  was  suggested,  in  the  course  of 
his  own  private  reading  and  study  of  the  Scriptures.  Some 
passages  in  the  writings  of  Moses  and  David,  and  other  inter- 
mediate writers,  favor  the  opinion,  that  they  viewed  the  struc- 
ture of  the  earth  as  follows : — According  to  Acts  vii.  22,  c  Mo- 
ses was  learned  in  all  the  wisdom  of  the  Egyptians.'  Of 
fccurse,  it  is  not  unirkety,  that  he  embraced  those  views  of 


INTRODUCTION.  27 

Astronomy  and  Geology  which  their  Philosophers  and  Astrol- 
ogers inculcated.  But  whether  this  be,  or  be  not  true,  the 
following  view  would  seem  to  elucidate  some  passages  of  scrip- 
ture, which  otherwise  appear  with  far  less  of  beauty  and  sub-> 
limity. 

Conceive  the  earth  to  have  been  in  their  view  a  flat,  circu- 
lar surface,  floating  upon  the  waters  of  the  deep.  There  would 
then  have  been  in  their  minds  these  three  distinct  ideas  : — 
First,  A  vast  expanse  of  firmament,  or  sky,  above  the  earth 
and  water.  This  in  general  they  called  'the  heavens.' 
Moses,  however,  often  speaks  of  the  first,  second,  and  third 
heavens.  This  division  is  thus  explained  : — The  first  heav- 
en, also  called  the  '  open  firmament,'  and  what  we  call  famil- 
iarly, '  up  in  the  air,'  was  the  space  above  us  in  which  the 
birds  of  the  air  wing  their  way,  and  the  clouds  are  seen  to 
move.  The  second  was  the  star-studded  sky.  And  the 
third  heaven,  beyond  the  starry-sky,  was  the  place  of  God's 
abode.  Thus  Paul  in  2  Cor.  xii.  speaks  of  one  '  caught 
up  into  the  third  heaven,'  '  caught  up  into  paradise.' 

The  second  idea,  in  their  conceptions,  would  have  been  the 
circular  solid  earth,  floating  upon  a  sea  of,  to  them,  unknown 
and  inconceivable  extent. 

The  third  prominent  point,  in  accordance  with  their  views, 
would  have  been  the  situation  of  the  world  beneath.  They 
probably  supposed  the  abode  of  departed  spirits  in  the  world 
of  woe,  to  be  far  below  the  bottom  of  the  deep.  With  such 
conceptions,  in  the  minds  of  the  ancients,  respecting  Heaven 
and  Earth  and  Hell,  how  sublime  and  beautiful  appears  Da- 
vid's description  of  God's  Omniscience  and  Omnipresence,  in 
the  139th  Psalm. 

'  O  Lord,  thou  hast  searched  me  and  known  me.  Thou 
knowestmy  down-sitting,  and  mine  up-rising ;  thou  understand- 
est  my  thought  afar  off.  Thou  compassest  my  path  and  my 
lying  down,  and  art  acquainted  with  all  my  ways.  ****** 

'  Whither  shall  I  go  from  thy  Spirit  1  or  whither  shall  I  flee 
from  thy  presence?  If  I  ascend  up  into  Heaven,  (the  highest 
place  which  they  conceived  of,  in  the  universe,)  thou  art 
there. 

'  If  I  make  my  bed  in  Hell,  (that  is,  the  lowest  place  in 
God's  dominions)  behold,  thou  art  there. 

*  If  I  take  the  wings  of  the  morning  and  dwell  in  the  utter- 
most parts  of  the  sea;  (still  stretching  his  thought  in  another 
direction,  through  the  boundless  limits  of  Jehovah's  empire,) 


28  INTRODUCTION. 

even  there  shall  thy  hand  lead  me,  and  thy  right  hand  shall 
hold  me.' 

How  much  interest,  too,  would  this  opinion,  if  entertained 
by  the  Jews,  add  to  the  sentiment  in  the  46th  Psalm, 

The  writer,  in  the  fulness  of  his  confidence  in  God,  as  a 
strong  and  sure  refuge  in  the  time  of  trouble,  declares  that  he 
will  trust  securely  in  him,  though  the  earth  be  shaken,  and 
the  mountains  overthrown  by  the  mighty  heavings  of  the  deep. 

c  God  is  our  refuge  and  strength,  a  very  present  help  in 
trouble ;  therefore  will  not  we  fear,  though  the  earth  be  re- 
moved,  and  though  the  mountains  be  carried  into  the  midst  of 
the  sea ;  though  the  waters  thereof  roar  and  be  troubled, 
though  the  mountains  shake  with  the  swelling  thereof.' 

Such  an  exposition,  whether  it  be  strictly  correct  or  not,, 
does  most  surely  discover  new  beauties  in  these  passages ;  and 
in  all  these  and  in  all  other  cases,  we  have  this  reflection  ob- 
viously presenting  itself,  that  the  difference  of  view,  between 
them  and  us,  which  such  investigations  disclose,  always  re- 
lates  to  points  merely  of  human  knowledge.  We  never  find 
them  countenancing  the  least  erroneous  opinion,  on  any  of  the 
principles  or  truths  of  divine  revelation. 

But,  notwithstanding  the  benefits  to  be  derived  from  an 
acquaintance  with  the  state  of  general  knowledge,  among  the 
Jews,  and  of  their  ordinary  habits  of  thinking,  the  value  of 
such  kind  of  information,  to  the  reader  of  the  Bible  at  the 
present  day,  is  still  more  clearly  and  strikingly  seen,  in  cases 
where  our  ideas  of  the  most  common  and  familiar  objects  are 
different  from  theirs.  We  all  of  us  are  apt  to  think,  and 
young  persons  especially  are,  that  the  places  and  occurrences 
of  which  we  read  in  the  Bible,  are  too  remote  in  distance  and 
time,  to  make  any  clear  and  vivid  impressions  upon  the  mind. 
But  the  great  difficulty  is,  in  regarding  the  scene,  and  the 
natural  objects  of  Scripture  History,  as  not  susceptible  of  the 
same  distinct  and  tangible  apprehension,  as  we  may  have  of 
objects  and  scenes  immediately  around  us,  here. 

Take,  for  example,  the  Scripture  allusions  to  the  shep- 
herd and  his  flock.  Perhaps  there  are  no  objects,  in  the 
whole  Animal  Kingdom,  which  furnish  so  many  beautiful 
and  affecting  illustrations,  as  the  sheep  and  the  fold.  The 
shepherd,  the  sheep,  and  the  lambs  are  the  sources  of  illustra- 
tion, from  the  beginning  to  the  end  of  the  Bible.  And  yet 
how  much  of  the  force  and  beauty  of  many  of  them  is  lost,  by 
a  want  of  acquaintance  with  the  custom  of  the  time,  in  rela 
tion  to  them. 


INTRODUCTION.  29 

There  is  an  anecdote,  quite  in  point  here,  which  was  relat- 
ed to  me,  by  the  same  clergyman  alluded  to  above,  while 
preparing  this  volume  for  the  press. 

We  were  reading  together,  in  our  social  devotions,  the  23d 
Psalm.  After  the  2d  verse,  '  He  leadeth  me  beside  the  still 
waters,'  he  remarked,  '  how  much  the  beauty  of  the  passage 
is  lost  to  readers  in  this  country,  from  not  knowing  the  cus- 
toms of  the  East.  Here,  you  know,  we  always  drive  sheep. 
But  it  was  not  so  there. 

*  A  year  or  two  since,  I  heard  in  Boston,  that  some  person 
had  imported  a  large  flock  of  Saxony  sheep,  and  that  they 
had  just  arrived  in  the  city.     One  morning  I  happened   to 
look  out  of  my  window  at  the  moment  they  were  passing  by. 
And  I  was  delighted  at  the  illustration  of  Scripture,  which 
the  scene  afforded. 

'  There  were  probably  an  hundred  or  an  hundred  and  fifty 
in  the  flock.  The  shepherd,  who  had  come  over  to  this 
country  to  take  care  of  them,  went  before  the  flock.  He 
held  his  right  hand  behind  him,  with  the  palm,  turned 
towards  the  slieep.  A  large  buck  followed  close  behind,, 
almost  touching  with  his  forehead  the  palm  of  the  shepherd's 
hand.  The  rest  of  the  flock  were  arranged  in  very  regular 
order,  behind  tfee  leader,  somewhat  in  the  form  of  a  wedge. 

'  The  -shepherd's  dog  followed  behind  the  whole,  urging  o» 
the  few  straggling  sheep,  who  were  disposed  to  linger. 

'  Whenever  the  shepherd  turned  a  corner,  the  leader  of  the 
flock  obeyed  the  turn  of  his  hand,  and  thus  the  whole  num- 
ber were  led,  without  the  least  difficulty,  through  any  part  of 
the  city.' 

*  Now  how  many  passages  in  the  Bible,  which  speak  of  the 
Cfood  Shepherd's  leading  the  lost  and  wandering  of  the  flock, 
back  again  to  the  fold,  and  keeping  them  in  green  pastures, 
&c.  are  scarcely  enjoyed,  at  all,  from  not  understanding  this. 

'  It  is  also  customary  in  Eastern  countries  for  the  shep- 
herd to  give  a  name  to  every  sheep  of  the  flock.  They  comes 
at  the  call  of  their  name,  and  are  easily  distinguished  and 
known  by  those  who  are  accustomed  to  the  shepherd's 
crook. 

'  In  this  light,  how  tender  and  beautiful  does  the  passage 
appear,  in  the  10th  chapter  of  John. 

'  He  calleth  his  own  sheep  by  name,  and  leadtth  them  out. 
And  when  he  putteth  forth  his  own  sheep,  he  goeth  before 
them,  and  the  sheep  follow  him,  for  they  know  his  voice.' 
3* 


30  INTRODUCTION. 

There  is  one  other  remarkable  passage  illustrative  of  the 
general  principle  of  which  we  have  been  speaking,  that  is  of 
so  entirely  different  a  character  from  either  of  the  preceding, 
that  I  cannot  forbear  to  mention  it.  It  relates  wholly  to  the 
Vegetable  Kingdom. 

The  14th  chapter  of  Hosea  begins  with  an  expostu- 
lation with  the  backsliding  Israelites,  and  with  an  ear- 
nest invitation  to  return  to  God.  The  most  affecting  as- 
surances are  given  of  his  forgiving  mercy  towards  their 
past  transgressions,  and  of  his  blessing  for  the  future.  And 
the  consequences  of  his  blessing  upon  them  as  returning 
penitents,  are  represented  in  the  following  manner. 

'  I  will  be  as  the  dew,  unto  Israel.'  In  some  parts  of 
Judea,  there  is  no  rain  for  many  months,  during  the  summer 
season,  and  the  influence  of  the  dew  is  essential  to  vegetation. 
Where  this  is  not  felt,  there  is  an  arid,  sterile  desert.  /  Where 
it  is  enjoyed,  it  causes  the  richest  and  most  luxuriant  growth. 
Though  they  had  become  withered  and  dying  like  grass,  by 
their  wanderings  and  sins,  His  grace  and  spirit,  like  the  dew 
should  revive  and  invigorate  them. 

'  He  shall  grow  as  the  lily.'  This  flower  is  remarkable  for 
the  rapidity  of  its  growth.  But  it  is  also  remarkable  for  its 
frailty.  So  it  is  added,  *  and  cast  forth  his  roots  as  Lebanon,' 
The  cedar  of  Lebanon  was  a  well-known  emblem  of  sta- 
bility. 

'  His  branches  shall  spread,  and  his  beauty  shall  be  as  the 
olive  treet  and  his  smell  as  Lebanon.' 

lie  shall  extend,  be  increased,  he  shall  be  beautiful  as  the 
olive  tree,  remarkable  for  the  symmetry  of  its  form,  and  for 
the  richness  and  fragrance  of  its  verdure.  As  it  is  elsewhere 
said,  *  the  fatness  of  the  olive  tree ;'  *  And  his  smell  as  Leb- 
anon/ This  mountain  was  distinguished  not  only  for  its 
wonderful  growth  of  firm  and  majestic  cedars,  but  for  the 
abundance  of  its  beautiful  and  fragrant  flowers.  Another 
object  of  comparison,  in  some  other  place,  is  the  '  scent  of  the 
wine  of  Lebanon,'  which  was  made  odorous  and  sweet  with 
aromatic  drugs. 

The  whole  of  this  delightful  passage  is  filled  with  the 
richest  imagery,  all  of  which  is  borrowed  from  the  common 
objects  of  vegetable  life.  And  yet  how  few  readers  of  the 
Bible  perceive  or  enjoy  the  precious  meaning  which  these 
comparisons  convey.  It  seems  to  me  that  it  would  be  utterly 
impossible  to  express,  by  any  direct  language,  the  fulness  of 
blessing,  which  is  couched  under  these  figures  of  speech. 


INTRODUCTION.  31 

Now  it  is  the  object  of  this  book  to  open  these  treasures  to 
every  reader.  To  unfold  some  at  least  of  the  hidden  beau* 
ties  of  the  word  of  God. 

It  is  by  the  discovery  of  such  stores  of  excellence  and  beauty, 
that  the  taste  for  the  study  of  the  Bible  will  be  cherished  and 
increased.  And  the  reader  will  be  able  to  say,  in  one  sense, 
if  not  in  the  true  one,  *  Thy  word  is  sweeter  than  honey  to 
my  taste ;  yea,  sweeter  than  honey  in  the  honey-comb^ 


I 


CHAPTER  I. 
ANIMALS. 

SEC.    I.— DOMESTIC   ANIMALS 
THE   ELEPHANT. 


THIS  extraordinary  animal  is  no  where  spoken  of  in  sacred  scrip* 
ture,  unless,  as  some  think,  it  is  the  behemoth  of  the  book  of  Job. 
Of  this,  however,  we  have  strong  doubts,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  ar- 
ticle Behemoth.  In  the  book  of  Maccabees,  we  have  an  account  of 
the  manner  in  which  the  elephants  Were  employed  in  the  field  of 
battle,  and  also  of  the  methods  adopted  to  excite  them  to  a  furious 
contest  with  the  enemy.  Ivory,  too,  the  well-known  production  of 
the  elephant,  is  twice  distinctly  mentioned  in  the  canonical  books, 
1  Kings  x.  22  2  Chron.  ix.  21  On  these  accounts,  it  must  find  a 
place  in  this  work. 

The  elephant  is  in  every  respect  the  noblest  quadruped  in  nature, 


36  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

not  less  remarkable  for  its  size  than  its  docility  and  understanding. 
All  historians  concur  in  giving  it  the  character  of  the  most  sagacious 
animal  next  to  man  ;  and  yet,  were  we  to  take  our  idea  of  its  capa- 
city from  its  outward  appearance,  we  should  be  led  to  conceive  very 
meanly  of  its  abilities.  At  first  view  it  presents  the  spectator  with 
an  enormous  mass  of  flesh,  that  seems  scarcely  animated.  Its  huge 
body,  covered  with  a  callous  hide,  without  hair;  its  large  missha- 
pen legs,  that  seem  scarcely  formed  for  motion ;  its  little  eyes,  large 
ears,  and  long  trunk,  all  give  it  an  air  of  extreme  stupidity.  But 
our  prejudices  will  soon  subside  when  we  come  to  examine  its  his- 
tory ;  they  will  even  serve  to  increase  our  surprise,  when  we  con- 
sider the  various  advantages  it  derives  from  so  clumsy  a  conforma- 
tion. 

The  elephant  is  seen  from  seven  to  fifteen  feet  high.  Whatever 
care  we  take  to  imagine  a  large  animal  beforehand,  yet  the  first 
sight  of  this  huge  creature  never  fails  to  strike  us  with  astonishment, 
and  in  some  measure  to  exceed  our  idea.  Having  been  used  to 
smaller  animals,  we  have  scarcely  any  conception  of  its  magnitude; 
for  a  moving  column  of  flesh,  fourteen  feet  high,  is  an  object  so 
utterly  different  from  those  we  are  constantly  presented  with,  that 
to  be  conceived  it  must  be  actually  seen.  It  would,  therefore,  be 
impossible  to  give  an  idea  of  this  animal's  figure  by  a  description ; 
which,  even  assisted  by  the  art  of  the  engraver,  will  but  confusedly 
represent  the  original.  In  general  it  may  be  observed,  that  the  fore- 
thead  is  high  and  rising,  the  ears  very  large  and  dependent,  the  eyes 
•extremely  small,  the  proboscis,  or  trunk,  long,  the  body  round  and 
dull,  the  back  rising  in  an  arch,  and  the  whole  animal  short  in  pro- 
portion to  its  height.  The  feet  are  round  at  the  bottom ;  on  each 
foot  there  are  five  flat  horny  risings,  which  seem  to  be  the  extremi- 
ties of  the  toes,  but  do  not  appear  outwardly.  The  hide  is  without 
hair,  full  of  scratches  and  seal's,  which  it  receives  in  its  passage 
through  thick  woods  and  thorny  places.  At  the  end  of  the  tail  there 
is  a  tuft  of  hair,  a  foot  and  a  half  long. 

Of  all  quadrupeds,  the  elephant  is  the  strongest,  as  well  as  the 
largest ;  and  yet,  in  a  state  of  nature,  it  is  neither  fierce  nor  formida- 
ble. Mild,  peaceful,  and  brave,  it  never  abuses  its  power  or  its 
strength,  and  only  uses  its  force  for  its  own  protection,  or  that  of  its 
community.  In  its  native  deserts  the  elephant  is  seldom  seen  alone, 
but  appears  to  be  a  social  friendly  creature.  The  oldest  of  the  com- 
pany conducts  the  band:  that  which  is  next  in  seniority  brings  up 
the  rear.  The  young,  the  weak,  and  the  sickly,  fall  into  the  centre  ; 
while  the  females  carry  their  young,  and  keep  them  from  falling  by 
means  of  their  trunks.  They  maintain  this  orderonly  in  dangerous 
marches,  or  when  they  desire  to  feed  in  cultivated  grounds  :  they 
move  with  less  precaution  in  the  forest  and  solitudes,  but  without 
•ever  separating  or  removing  so  far  asunder  as  to  be  incapable  of 
lendiag  each  other  any  requisite  assistance.  It  now  and  then  hap- 
pens, that  one  or  two  is  found  lingering  behind  the  rest,  and  it  is 
Against  these  that  the  art  and  force  of  the  hunters  are  united  ;  but  an 
attempt  to  molest  the  whole  body  would  certainly  be  fatal.  They 


THE  ELEPHANT.  37 

go  forward  directly  against  him  who  offers  the  insult,  strike  him 
with  their  tusks,  seize  him  with  their  trunks,  fling  him  into  the  air, 
and  then  trample  him  to  pieces  under  their  feet.  But  they  are  thus 
dreadful  only  when  offended,  and  do  no  manner  of  personal  injury 
when  suffered  to  feed  without  interruption.  It  is  even  known  that 
they  are  mindful  of  injuries  received;  and,  when  once  molested  by 
man,  seek  all  occasions  for  the  future  to  be  revenged.  They  srnell 
him  with  their  long  trunks  at  a  distance  ;  follow  him  with  all  their 
speed  upon  the  scent ;  and,  though  slow  to  appearance,  they  are 
soon  able  to  come  up  with  and  destroy  him. 

In  their  natural  state,  they  delight  to  live  along  the  sides  of  rivers, 
to  keep  in  the  deepest  vales,  to  refresh  themselves  in  the  most  shady 
forests  and  watery  places.  They  cannot  live  far  from  the  water ;  and 
they  always  disturb  it  before  they  drink.  They  often  fill  their  trunk 
with  it,  either  to  cool  that  organ,  or  to  divert  themselves  by  spirting 
it  out  like  a  fountain. 

Their  chief  food  is  of  the  vegetable  kind,  for  they  loathe  all  kind 
of  animal  diet.  When  one  among  their  number  happens  to  light 
upon  a  spot  of  good  pasture,  he  calls  the  rest,  and  invites  them  to 
share  in  the  entertainment ;  but  it  must  be  a  very  copious  pasture 
indeed  that  can  supply  the  necessities  of  the  whole  band.  As  with 
their  broad  and  heavy  feet  they  sink  deep  wherever  they  go,  they 
destroy  much  more  than  they  devour;  so  that  they  are  frequently 
obliged  to  change  their  quarters,  and  to  migrate  from  one  country 
to  another.  The  Indians  and  Negroes,  who  are  often  incommoded 
by  such  visitants,  do  all  they  can  to  keep  them  away ;  making  loud 
noises,  and  large  fires  round  their  cultivated  grounds.  But  these 
precautions  do  not  always  succeed ;  the  elephants  often  break 
through  their  fences,  destroy  their  whole  harvest,  and  overturn 
their  little  habitations.  When  they  have  satisfied  themselves  and 
trodden  down  or  devoured  whatever  lay  in  their  way,  they  then  re- 
treat into  the  woods,  in  the  same  orderly  manner  in  which  they 
made  their  irruption. 

Such  are  the  habits  of  this  animal,  considered  in  a  social  light : 
if  we  regard  it  as  an  individual,  we  shall  find  its  powers  still  more 
extraordinary.  With  a  very  awkward  appearance,  it  possesses  all 
the  senses  in  great  perfection,  and  is  capable  of  applying  them  to 
more  useful  purposes  than  any  other  quadruped.  The  elephant, 
as  we  observed,  has  very  small  eyes,  when  compared  to  the  enor- 
mous bulk  of  its  body.  But  though  their  minuteness  may  at  first 
sight  appear  deformed,  yet,  when  we  come  to  examine  them,  they 
are  seen  to  exhibit  a  variety  of  expression,  and  to  discover  the  va- 
rious  sensations  with  which  it  is  moved.  It  turns  them  with 
attention  and  friendship  to  its  master:  it  seems  to  reflect  and 
deliberate ;  and  as  its  passions  slowly  succeed  each  other,  their 
various  workings  are  distinctly  seen.  Nor  is  it  less  remarkable  for 
the  excellence  of  its  hearing.  Its  ears  are  extremely  large,  and 
greater  in  proportion  than  even  those  of  an  ass.  They  are  usually 
dependent;  but  it  can  readily  raise,  and  move  them.  They  serv'e 


38  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

also  to  wipe  its  eyes,  and  to  protect  them  against  the  dust  and 
flies,  that  might  otherwise  incommode  them.  It  appears  delighted 
with  music,  and  very  readily  learns  to  beat  time,  to  move  in  meas- 
ure, and  even  to  join  its  voice  to  the  sound  of  the  drum  and  the 
trumpet. 

Its  sense  of  smelling  is  not  only  exquisite,  but  in  a  great 
measure  pleased  with  the  same  odors  that  delight  mankind.  The 
elephant  gathers  flowers  with  great  pleasure  and  attention  ;  it  picks 
them  up  one  by  one,  unites  them  into  a  nosegay,  and  seems  charm- 
ed with  the  perfume.  The  orange-flower  seems  to  be  particularly 
grateful  both  to  its  sense  of  taste  and  smelling ;  it  strips  the  tree  of 
all  its  verdure,  and  eats  every  part  of  it,  even  to  the  branches  them- 
selves. It  seeks  in  the  meadows  the  most  odoriferous  plants  to 
feed  upon  ;  and  in  the  woods  it  prefers  the  cocoa,  the  banana,  the 
palm,  and  the  sago-tree,  to  all  others.  As  the  shoots  of  these  are  ten- 
der and  filled  with  pith,  it  eats  not  only  the  leaves  and  the  fruits,  but 
even  the  branches,  the  trunk,  and  the  whole  plant,  to  the  very  roots. 

But  it  is  in  the  sense  of  touching  that  this  animal  excels  all 
others  of  the  brute  creation,  and,  perhaps,  even  man  himself.  The 
organ  of  this  sense  lies  wholly  in  the  trunk,  which  is  an  instrument 
peculiar  to  this  animal,  and  which  serves  for  it  all  the  purposes  of 
a  hand.  The  trunk  is,  properly  speaking,  only  the  snout  lengthen- 
ed out  to  a  great  extent,  hollow  like  a  pipe,  and  ending  in  two 
openings,  or  nostrils,  like  those  of  a  hog*  An  elephant  of  fourteen 
feet  high  has  the  trunk  about  eight  feet  long,  and  five  feet  and  a 
half  in  circumference  at  the  mouth,  where  it  is  thickest.  It  is 
hollow  all  along,  but  with  a  partition  running  from  one  end  of  it  to 
the  other;  so  that  though  outwardly  it  appears  like  a  single  pipe,  it 
is  inwardly  divided  into  two.  This  fleshly  tube  is  composed  of 
nerves  and  muscles,  covered  with  a  proper  skin  of  a  blackish  color, 
like  that  of  the  rest  of  the  body.  It  is  capable  of  being  moved  in 
every  direction,  of  being  lengthened  and  shortened)  of  being  bent 
or  straightened,  so  pliant  as  to  embrace  any  body  it  is  applied  to, 
and  yet  so  strong  that  nothing  can  be  torn  from  its  gripe. 

To  aid  the  force  of  this  grasp,  there  are  several  little  eminences  like 
a  caterpillar's  feet,  on  the  underside  of  this  instrument,  which,  with- 
out doubt,  contribute  to  the  sensibility  of  the  touch,  as  well  as  to 
the  firmness  of  the  hold.  Through  this  trunk  the  animal  breathes, 
drinks,  and  smells,  as  through  a  tube ;  and  at  the  very  point  of  it, 
just  above  the  nostrils,  there  is  an  extension  of  the  skin,  about  five 
inches  long,  in  the  form  of  a  finger,  and  which  in  fact  answers  all 
the  purposes  of  one :  for,  with  the  rest  of  the  extremity  of  the  trunk, 
it  is  capable  of  assuming  different  forms  at  will,  and,  consequently, 
of  being  adapted  to  the  minutest  objects.  ]By  means  of  this,  the 
elephant  can  take  a  pin  from  the  ground,  untie  the  knots  of  a  rope, 
unlock  a  door,  and  even  write  with  a  pen.  'I  have  myself  seen,' 
says  uElian, « an  elephant  writing  Latin  characters  on  a  board,  in  a 
very  orderly  manner,  his  keeper  only  showing  him  the  figure  of 
each  letter.  While  thus  employed,  the  eyes  might  be  observed 
Studiously  cast  down  upon  the  writing,  and  exhibiting  an  appear- 


THE    ELEPHANT.  39 

ance  of  great  skill  and  erudition.'  It  sometimes  happens  that  the 
object  is  too  large  for  the  trunk  to  grasp:  in  such  a  case  the 
elephant  makes  use  of  another  expedient  as  admirable  as  any  of 
the  former.  It  applies  the  extremity  of  the  trunk  to  the  surface  of 
the  object,  and,  sucking  up  its  breath,  lifts,  and  sustains  such  a 
weight  as  the  air  in  that  case  is  capable  of  keeping  suspended.  In 
such  manner  this  instrument  is  useful  in  most  of  the  purposes  of 
life ;  it  is  an  organ  of  smelling,  of  touching,  and  of  suction  ;  it  not 
only  provides  for  the  animal's  necessities  and  comforts,  but  it  also 
serves  for  ornament  and  defence. 

But,  though  the  elephant  is  thus  admirably  supplied  by  its  trunk, 
yet,  with  respect  to  the  rest  of  its  conformation,  it  is  unwieldy  and 
helpless.  The  neck  is  so  short  that  it  can  scarcely  turn  the  head, 
and  must  wheel  round  in  order  to  discover  an  enemy  from  behind. 
The  hunters  that  attack  it  upon  that  quarter,  generally  thus  escape 
the  effects  of  its  indignation,  and  find  time  to  renew  their  assaults 
while  the  elephant  is  turning  to  face  them,  The  legs  are,  indeed, 
not  so  inflexible  as  the  neck,  yet  they  are  very  stiff,  and  bend  not 
without  difficulty.  Those  before  seem  to  be  longer  than  the 
hinder,  but,  upon  being  measured,  are  found  to  be  something 
shorter.  The  joints,  by  which  they  bend,  are  nearly  in  the  middle, 
like  the  knee  of  a  man  ;  and  the  great  bulk  which  they  are  to  sup- 
port makes  their  flexure  ungainly.  While  the  elephant  is  young, 
it  bends  the  legs  to  lie  down  or  to  rise ;  but  when  it  grows  old,  or 
sickly,  this  is  not  performed  without  human  assistance ;  and  it 
becomes,  consequently,  so  inconvenient,  that  the  animal  chooses 
to  sleep  standing.  The  feet,  upon  which  these  massy  columns  are 
supported,  form  a  base  scarcely  broader  than  the  legs  they  sustain. 
They  are  divided  into  five  toes,  which  are  covered  beneath  the 
skin,  and  none  of  which  appear  to  the  eye ;  protuberances  like 
claws  are  only  observed,  which  vary  in  number  from  three  to 
five.  The  apparent  claws  vary ;  the  internal  toes  are  constantly 
the  same.  The  sole  of  the  foot  is  furnished  with  a  skin  as  thick 
and  hard  as  horn,  which  completely  covers  the  whole  of  its  under 
part. 

To  the  rest  of  the  elephant's  incumbrances  may  be  added  its 
enormous  tusks,  which  are  unserviceable  for  chewing,  and  are  only 
weapons  of  defence.  These,  as  the  animal  grows  old,  become  so 
heavy  that  it  is  sometimes  obliged  to  make  holes  in  the  walls  of  its 
stall,  to  rest  them  in,  and  ease  itself  of  the  fatigue  of  their  support. 
It  is  well  known  to  what  an  amazing  size  these  tus.ks  grow  ;  they 
are  two  in  number,  proceeding  from  the  upper  jaw,  and  are  some- 
times found  above  six  feet  long.  Some  have  supposed  them  to  be 
rather  the  horns  than  the  teeth  of  the  animal ;  but,  besides  their 
greater  similitude  to  bone  than  to  horn,  they  have  been  indisputa- 
bly found  to  grow  from  the  upper  jaw.* 

*  In  1  Kings  x.  18,  Ivory  is  designated  great  tooth,  which  clearly  shows,  says  Mr. 
Taylor,  that  the  Hebrews  imported  it  in  the  whole  tusk.  Ezekiel  has  used  a  phrase 
Which  more  correctly  describes  the  nature  of  these  weapons  of  defence  ;  horns  oftectk. 


40 


SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 


Some  have  asserted,  that  these  tusks  are  shed  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  the  stag  sheds  its  horns ;  but  it  is  very  probable,  from  their 
solid  consistence,  arid  from  their  accidental  defects,  which  often 
appear  to  be  the  effect  of  a  slow  decay,  that  they  are  as  fixed  as 
the  teeth  of  other  animals  are  generally  found  to  be.  Certain  it  is, 
that  the  elephant,  in  a  domestic  state,  never  sheds  them,  but  keeps 
them  till  they  become  inconvenient  and  cumbrous  to  the  last 
degree. 

This  animal  is  equally  singular  in  other  parts  of  its  conformation  ; 
the  lips  and  the  tongue  in  other  creatures  serve  to  suck  up  and 
direct  their  drink  or  their  food ;  but  in  the  elephant  they  are  totally 
inconvenient  for  such  purposes.  It  not  only  gathers  its  food  with 
its  trunk,  but  supplies  itself  with  water  by  the  same  means.  When 
it  eats  hay,  it  takes  up  a  small  wisp  of  it  with  the  trunk,  turns  and 
shapes  it  with  that  instrument  for  some  time,  and  then  directs  it 
into  the  mouth,  where  it  is  chewed  by  the  great  grinding  teeth, 
that  are  large  in  proportion  to  the  bulk  of  the  animal.  This  pac- 
quet,  when  chewed,  is  swallowed,  and  never  ruminated  again,  as 
in  cows  or  sheep,  the  stomach  and  intestines  of  this  creature  more 
resembling  those  of  a  horse.  Its  manner  of  drinking  is  equally 
extraordinary. 


For  this  purpose,  the  elephant  dips  the  end  of  his  trunk  into  the 
water,  and  sucks  up  just  as  much  as  fills  that  great  fleshy  tube 
completely.  It  then  lifts  up  its  head  with  the  trunk  full,  and  turn- 


THE  ELEPHANT,  41 

ing  the  point  into  its  mouth,  as  if  it  intended  to  swallow  trunk  and 
all,  it  drives  the  point  below  the  opening  of  the  windpipe.  The 
trunk  being  in  this  position,  and  still  full  of  water,  the  elephant 
then  blows  strongly  into  it  at  the  other  end,  which  forces  the  water 
it  contains  into  the  throat ;  down  which  it  is  heard  to  pour  with  a 
loud  gurgling  noise,  which  continues  till  it  is  aU  blown  down. 
From  this  manner  of  drinking  some  have  been  led  into  an  opinion, 
that  the  young  elephant  sucks  with  its  trunk,  and  not  with  its 
mouth ;  this,  however,  is  erroneous. 

The  hide  of  the  elephant  is  as  remarkable  as  any  other  part.  It 
is  not  covered  over  with  hair,  as  in  the  generality  of  quadrupeds, 
but  is  nearly  bare.  Here  and  there  indeed,  a  few  bristles  are  seen 
growing  in  the  scars  and  wrinkles  of  the  body,  and  very  thinly 
scattered  over  the  rest  of  the  skin  ;  but  in  general  the  hide  is  dry, 
rough,  and  wrinkled,  and  resembles  more  the  bark  of  an  old  tree 
than  the  skin  of  an  animal.  This  grows  thicker  every  year ;  and, 
by  a  constant  addition  of  substance,  it  contracts  that  disorder  well 
known  by  the  name  of  elephantiasis,  or  Arabian  leprosy ;  a  dis- 
ease to  which  man,  as  well  as  the  elephant,  is  often  subject.  In 
order  to  prevent  this,  the  Indians  rub  the  skin  with  oil,  and  fre- 
quently bathe  it,  to  preserve  its  pliancy.  To  the  inconveniences 
of  this  disorder  is  added  another,  arising  from  the  great  sensibility 
of  those  parts  that  are  not  callous.  Upon  these  the  flies  settle  in 
great  abundance,  and  torment  the  animal  unceasingly ;  to  remedy 
which  the  elephant  tries  all  its  arts ;  using  not  only  its  tail  and 
trunk,  in  the  natural  manner,  to  keep  them  off,  but  even  taking  the 
branch  of  a  tree,  or  a  bundle  of  hay,  to  strike  them  off  with. 
When  this  fails,  it  often  gathers  up  the  dust  with  its  trunk,  and 
covers  all  the  sensible  places.  In  this  manner  it  has  been  seen  to 
dust  itself  several  times  in  a  day,  and  particularly  upon  leaving  the 
bath. 

Water  is  as  necessary  to  this  animal  as  food  itself.  When  in  a 
state  of  nature  the  elephant  rarely  quits  the  banks  of  the  river,  and 
often  stands  in  water  up  to  the  belly.  In  a  state  of  servitude,  the 
Indians  take  equal  care  to  provide  a  proper  supply  of  water;  they 
wash  it  with  great  address,  and  give  it  all  the  conveniences  for 
lending  assistance  to  itself. 

It  is  not  to  be  wondered  at,  that  an  animal  furnished  with  so 
many  and  various  advantages,  of  strength,  sagacity,  and  obedience, 
should  be  taken  into  the  service  of  man.  We  accordingly  find 
that  the  elephant,  from  time  immemorial,  has  been  employed 
either  for  the  purposes  of  labor,  of  war,  or  of  ostentation  ;  to  increase 
the  grandeur  of  eastern  princes,  or  to  extend  their  dominions. 
We  have  hitherto  been  describing  this  animal  in  its  natural  state ; 
we  now  come  to  consider  it  in  a  different  point  of  view,  as  taken 
from  the  forest,  and  reduced  to  human  obedience.  We  are  now  to 
behold  this  brave,  harmless  creature  learning  a  lesson  from  man- 
kind, and  instructed  by  them  in  all  the  arts  of  war,  massacre,  and 
devastation.  We  are  now  to  behold  this  half-reasoning  animal  led 


42  SCRIPTURE   NATURAL   HISTORY. 

into  the  field  of  battle,  and  wondering  at  those  tumults  and  that 
madness  which  he  is  compelled  to  increase. 

The  elephant  is  a  native  of  Africa  and  Asia,  being  found  neither 
in  Europe  nor  America.  The  savage  inhabitants  of  Africa,  instead 
of  attempting  to  subdue  this  powerful  creature  to  their  necessities, 
are  happy  in  being  able  to  protect  themselves  from  his  fury.  For- 
merly, indeed,  during  the  splendor  of  the  Carthaginian  empire,  ele- 
phants were  used  in  their  wars,  but  this  was  only  a  transitory  gleam 
of  human  power  in  that  part  of  the  globe ;  the  natives  of  Africa; 
have  long  since  degenerated,  and  the  elephant  is  only  known  among 
them  from  his  devastations.  However,  there  are  no  elephants  in 
the  northern  parts  of  Africa  at  present,  there  being  none  found  ou 
this  side  of  Mount  Atlas*  It  is  beyond  the  river  Senegal  that  they 
are  to  be  met  with  in  great  numbers,  and  so  down  to  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  as  well  as  in  the  heart  of  the  country.  Pn  this  exten- 
sive region  they  appear  to  be  more  numerous  than  in  any  other 
part  of  the  world.  They  are  there  less  fearful  of  men  :  less  retired 
into  the  heart  of  the  forests,  they  seem  to  be  sensible  of  his  impo- 
tence and  ignorance ;  and  often  come  down  to  ravage  his  little  la- 
bors. They  treat  him  with  the  same  haughty  disdain  which  they 
show  to  other  animals,  and  consider  him  as  a  mischievous  little  be- 
ing, that  fears  to  oppose  them  openly. 

But,  although  these  animals  are  most  plentiful  in  Africa,  it  is  on- 
ly in  Asia  that  the  greatest  elephants  are  found,  and  rendered  sub- 
servient to  human  command.  In  Africa,  the  largest  do  not  exceed 
ten  feet  high ;  in  Asia,  they  are  found  from  tei>  to  fifteen.  Their 
price  increases  in  proportion  to  their  size ;  and  when  they  exceed 
a  certain  bulk,  like  jewels,  their  value  then  rises  as  the  fancy  is 
pleased  to  estimate. 

As  the  art  of  war  is  but  very  little  improved  in  Asia,  there  are  few 
princes  of  the  East  who  do  not  procure  and  maintain  as  many  ele- 
phants as  they  are  able,  and  place  great  confidence  on  their  assist- 
ance in  an  engagement.  For  this  purpose,  they  are  obliged  to  take 
them  wild  in  their  native  forests  and  tame  them. 

The  elephant,  when  once  tamed,  becomes  the  most  gentle  and 
obedient  of  all  animal's.  It  soon  conceives  an  attachment  for  the 
person  that  attends  it,  caresses  him,  oheys  him,  and  seems  to  anti- 
cipate his  desires.  In  a  short  time  it  begins  to  comprehend  several 
of  the  signs  made  to  it,  and  even  the  different  sounds  of  the  voice  ; 
it  perfectly  distinguishes  the  tone  of  command  from  that  of  anger 
or  approbation,  and  it  acts  accordingly.  It  is  seldom  deceived  in- 
its  master's  voice ;  it  receives  his  orders  with  attention,  and  executes 
them  with  prudence ;  eagerly,  yet  without  precipitation.  All  its 
motions  are  regulated  ;  and  its  actions  seem  to  partake  of  its  magni- 
tude, being  grave,  majestic,  and  secure.  It  is  quickly  taught  to 
kneel  down,  to  receive  its  rider;  it  caresses  those  it  knows  with  its 
trunk ;  with  this  salutes  such  as  it  is  ordered  to  distinguish,  and 
with  this,  as  with  a  hand,  helps  to  take  up  a  part  of  its  load.  It 
suffers  itself  to  be  arrayed  in  harness,  and  seems  to  take  a  pleasure 
in  the  finery  of  its  trappings.  It  draws  either  chariots,  cannon,  or 


THE  ELEPHANT. 


43 


shipping,  with  surprising  strength  and  perseverance ;  and  this  with 
a  seeming  satisfaction,  provided  that  it  be  not  beaten  without  a  cause, 
and  that  its  master  appear  pleased  with  its  exertions. 

The  elephant's  conductor  is  usually  mounted  on  its  neck,  and 
makes  use  of  a  rod  of  iron  to  guide  it,  which  is  sometimes  pointed, 
and  at  others  bent  into  a  hook.  With  this  the  animal  is  spurred 
forward,  when  dull  or  disobedient ;  but,  in  general,  a  word  is  suffir 


cient  to  put  the  gentle  creature  into  motion,  especially  when  it  is 
acquainted  with  its  conductor.  This  acquaintance  is  often  perfect- 
ly necessary,  for  the  elephant  frequently  takes  such  an  affection  to 
its  keeper,  that  it  will  obey  no  other ;  and  it  has  been  known  to  die 
with  grief,  when,  in  some  sudden  fit  of  madness,  it  has  killed  )ts 
driver. 


44  SCRIPTURE   NATURAL   HISTORY. 

But  it  is  not  for  drawing  burdens  alone  that  the  elephants  are 
serviceable  in  war ;  they  are,  in  the  East,  often  brought  into  the 
ranks,  and  compelled  to  fight  in  the  most  dangerous  parts  of  the 
field  of  battle  :  they  are  led,  armed  before  with  coats  of  mail,  and 
loaded  on  the  back  each  with  a  square  tower,  containing  from  five 
combatants  to  seven.  Upon  its  neck  sits  the  conductor,  who  goads 
the  animal  into  the  thickest  ranks,  and  encourages  it  to  increase  the 
devastation  ;  *  wherever  it  goes,  nothing  can  withstand  its  fury ;  it 
levels  the  ranks  with  its  immense  bulk,  flings  such  as  oppose  it  in- 
to the  air,  or  crushes  them  to  death  under  its  feet.  In  the  mean 
time,  those  who  are  placed  upon  its  back  combat  as  from"  an  emi- 
nence, and  fling  down  their  weapons  with  double  force,  their  weight 
being  added  to  their  velocity.f  Nothing,  therefore,  can  be  more 
dreadful,  or  more  irresistible,  than  such  a  moving  machine,  to  men 
unacquainted  with  the  modern  arts  of  war;  the  elephant,  thus  arm- 
ed and  conducted,  raging  in  the  midst  of  a  field  of  battle,  inspires 
more  terror  than  even  those  machines  that  destroy  at  a  distance,  and 
are  often  most  fatal  when  most  unseen. 

The  strength  of  an  elephant  is  equal  to  its  bulk,  for  it  can,  with 
great  ease,  draw  a  load  that  six  horses  could  not  move :  it  can  read- 
iiy  carry  upon  its  back  three  or  four  thousand  weight;  upon  its  tusks 
alone  it  can  support  nearly  a  thousand.  Its  force  may  also  be  esti- 
mated from  the  velocity  o'f  its  motion,  compared  to  the  mass  of  its 
body,  It  can  go,  in  its  ordinary  pace,  as  fast  as  a  horse  at  an  easy 
trot ;  and,  when  pushed,  it  can  move  as  swiftly  as  a  horse  at  full 
gallop.  It  can  travel  with  ease  fifty  or  sixty  miles  a  day ;  and  when 
hard  pressed,  almost  double  that  distance.  It  may  be  heard  trotting 
on  at  a  great  distance  ;  it  is  easy  also  to  follow  it  by  its  track,  which 
is  deeply  impressed  on  the  ground,  and  from  fifteen  to  eighteen 
inches  in  diameter. 

In  India  they  are  also  put  to  other  very  disagreeable  offices,  for 
in  some  courts  of  the  more  barbarous  princes,  they  are  used  as 
executioners;  and  this  horrid  task  they  perform  with  great  dexteri- 
ty. With  their  trunks  they  are  seen  to  break  every  limb  of  the 
criminal  at  the  word  of  command ;  they  sometimes  trample  him  to 
death,  and  sbmetimes  impale  him  on  their  tusks,  as  directed.  In 
this,  the  elephant  is  rather  the  servant  of  a  cruel  master,  than  a  vol- 
untary tyrant,  since  no  other  animal  of  the  forest  is  so  naturally 
benevolent  and  gentle  ;  equally  mindful  of  benefits  as  sensible  o'f 
neglect,  he  contracts  a  friendship  for  his  keeper,  and  obeys  him  to 
the  utmost  of  his  capacity. 

*  *  And  that  they  might  provoke  the  elephants  to  fight,  they  showed  them  the  blood  of 
grapes  and  mulberries.'  1  Mac.  vi.  34. 

f  *  And  upon  the  beasts  there  were  strong  towers  of  wood,  which  covered  each  of 
them,  and  were  girt  fast  to  them  by  mechanical  devices  :  there  were  also  upon  each  of 
them,  two  and  thirty  strongmen,  who  fought  upon  them,  beside  the  Indian  that  ruled 
them.'  1  Mac.  vi.  37. 


THE   CAMEL.  45 

THE     CAMEL. 


THE  original  name  of  this  animal  has  passed  into  most  languages?, 
ancient  and  modern.  In  Hebrew  it  is  called  Gemel,  from  the  verb 
to  repay,  requite ;  probably  on  account  of  its  revengeful  disposition, 
'  A  camel's  anger,'  is  an  Arabian  proverb  for  an  irreconcileable  en- 
mity. There  is  no  animal  which  remembers  an  injury  longer,  nor 
seizes  with  greater  keenness  the  proper  opportunity  of  revenge ; 
which  is  the  more  remarkable  on  account  of  its  gentle  and  docib 
disposition,  when  unprovoked  by  harsh  treatment. 

From  the  Scriptures  we  learn  that  the  camel  constituted  an  im- 
portant branch  of  patriarchal  wealth.  Job  had  at  first  three  thou- 
sand, and  after  the  days  of  his  adversity  had  passed  away  six  thou- 
sand camels.  The  Arabians  estimate  their  riches  and  possessions 
by  the  number  of  their  camels  ;  and  speaking  of  the  splendor  and 
wealth  of  a  noble,  or  prince,  they  observe,  he  has  so  many  camels  j 
not  so  many  pieces  of  gold.  The  Midianites  and  Amalekites  had 
camels  without  number,  as  the  sand  upon  the  seashore  ;  many  of 
which  were  adorned  with  chains  of  gold,  and  other  rich  and  splen- 
did ornaments,  Judges  vii.  12.  So  great  was  the  importance  attached 
to  the  management  and  propagation  of  camels,  that  a  particular 
officer  was  appointed  in  the  reign  of  David,  to  superintend  their 
keepers.  Nor  is  it  without  a  special  design,  that  the  inspired  writer 
mentions  the  descent  of  the  person  appointed  ;  he  was  an  Jshmaek 
jte,  and  therefore  supposed  to  be  thoroughly  skilled  in  the  treatment 
of  that  useful  quadruped, 


40  SCRIPTURE   NATURAL  HISTORY. 

There  are  as  many  as  seven  species  of  camel  discriminated  by 
Zoologists ;  but  it  is  only  the  Arabian  camel  or  dromedary,  and  the 
Bactrian  camel,  that  are  known  in  Scripture. 

The  former  species  is  distinguished  by  having  only  one  bunch 
or  protuberance  on  the  back.  Its  general  height,  measured  from 
the  top  of  the  dorsal  bunch  to  the  ground,  is  about  six  feet  and  a 
half,  but  from  the  top  of  the  head  when  the  animal  elevates  it,  it  is 
not  much  less  than  nine  feet:  the  head,  however,  is  usually  so  car- 
ried as  to  be  nearly  on  a  level  with  the  bunch,  or  rather  below  it, 
the  animal  bending  the  neck  extremely  in  its  general  posture.  The 
Lead  is  small ;  the  neck  very  long ;  and  the  body  of  a  long  and 
meagre  shape ;  the  legs  rather  slender,  and  the  tail,  which  is  slight- 
ly tufted  at  the  extremity,  reaches  to  the  joints  of  the  hind  legs. 
The  feet  are  very  large,  and  are  hoofed  in  a  peculiar  manner,  being 
divided  above  into  two  lobes,  the  extremity  of  each  lobe  being  guar- 
ded by  a  small  hoof.  The  under  part  of  the  foot  is  guarded  by  an 
extremely  long,  tough,  and  pliable  skin,  which,  by  yielding  in  all 
directions,  enables  the  animal  to  travel  with  peculiar  ease  and  secu- 
rity over  dry,  hot,  stony,  and  sandy  regions,  which  would  soon  parch 
and  destroy  the  hoof.  On  the  legs  are  six  callosities, — one  on  each 
knee,  one  on  the  inside  of  each  fore  leg  on  the  upper  joint,  and  one 
on  the  inside  of  each  hind  leg  at  the  bottom  of  the  thigh.  On  the 
lower  part  of  the  breast  is  also  a  large  callous  or  tough  tubercle, 
which  is  gradually  increased  by  the  constant  habit  which  the  animal 
has  of  resting  upon  it  in  lying  down. 

The  native  country  of  the  camel  is  Arabia,  from  whose  burning 
deserts  it  has  been  gradually  diffused  over  the  rest  of  Asia  and 
Africa.  The  Arab  venerates  his  camel  as  the  gift  of  heaven,  as  a 
sacred  animal,  without  whose  aid  he  could  neither  subsist,  trade, 
nor  travel. 

The  hair  of  these  animals,  which  is  fine  and  soft,  and  isrene\ved 
every  year,  is  used  by  the  Arabians  to  make  stuffs  for  their  clothing 
and  furniture.  It  was  of  this  material  that  Elijah  the  Tishbite  wore 
a  dress,  (2  Kings,  i.  8) ;  and  also  John  the  Baptist,  Matt.  in.  1.  It 
must  not  be  supposed,  however,  that  the  description  of  haircloth 
used  by  these  and  other  prophets,  mentioned  in  scripture,  bore  any 
resemblance  to  the  beautiful  cash  mire  shawl,  imported  into  this 
country:  it  was  a  much  coarser  manufacture  of  this  material,  and 
is  still  used  by  the  modern  dervises.  We  may  probably  obtain  some 
idea  of  its  texture,  from  what  Braithwaite  says  of  the  Arabian  huts: 
1  They  are  made  of  camels'  hair,  something  like  our  coarse  hair- 
cloths to  lay  over  goods.' 

Blest  with  their  camels,  the  Arabs  not  only  want  for  nothing,  but 
they  fear  nothing.  In  a  single  day  they  can  traverse  a  tract  of  fifty 
Jeagues  into  the  desert,  and  thus  escape  the  reach  of  their  enemies. 
All  the  armies  in  the  world,  says  Buffon,  would  perish  in  pursuit  of 
a  troop  of  Arabs.  Figure  to  yourself,  for  instance,  observes  this 
writer,  a  country  without  verdure,  and  without  water  ;  a  burning 
sand,  an  air  always  clear,  plains  of  sands,  and  mountains  still  more 


THE   CAMEL.  47 

parched,  over  which  the  eye  extends  without  perceiving  a  single 
animated  being ;  a  dead  earth,  perpetually  tossed  by  the  winds,  pre- 
senting nothing  but  bones,  scattered  flints,  rocks  perpendicular,  or 
overthrown :  a  naked  desert  where  the  traveller  never  breathes  un- 
der a  friendly  shade,  where  nothing  accompanies  him,  and  where 
nothing  recals  to  mind  the  idea  of  animated  nature;  an  absolute 
solitude,  infinitely  more  frightful  than  that  of  the  deepest  forest ;  for 
to  man  trees  are,  at  least,  visible  objects  :  more  solitary  and  naked, 
more  lost  in  an  unbounded  void,  he  every  where  beholds  the  extend- 
ed space  surrounding  him  as  a  tomb:  the  light  of  the  day,  more 
dismal  than  the  darkness  of  night,  serves  only  to  give  him  a  clearer 
idea  of  his  own  wretchedness  and  impotence,  and  to  present  before 
his  eyes  the  horror  of  his  situation,  by  extending  around  him  the 
immense  abyss  which  separates  him  from  the  habitable  parts  of  the 
earth  :  an  abyss  which  he  would  in  vain  attempt  to  traverse,  for 
hunger,  thirst,  and  burning  heat  haunt  him  every  moment  that  re- 
mains between  despair  and  death.  The  Arab,  nevertheless,  by  the 
assistance  of  his  camel,  has  learned  to  surmount,  and  even  to  appro- 
priate these  frightful  intervals  of  nature  to  himself.  They  serve  him 
for  an  asylum,  they  secure  his  repose,  and  maintain  his  independ* 
ence.  The  Arab  is  early  accustomed  to  the  fatigues  of  travelling, 
to  want  of  sleep ;  and  to  endure  hunger,  thirst,  and  heat.  With 
this  view  he  instructs,  rears,  and  exercises  his  camels.  A  few  days 
after  their  birth,  he  folds  their  limbs  to  remain  on  the  ground,  and 
in  this  situation  he  loads  them  with  a  pretty  heavy  weight,  which 
is  never  removed  but  for  the  purpose  of  replacing  a  greater.  Instead 
of  allowing  them  to  feed  at  pleasure,  and  to  drink  when  they  are 
thirsty,  he  regulates  their  repasts,  and  makes  them  gradually  travel 
long  journies,  diminishing  at  the  same  time  their  quantity  of  food. 
When  they  acquire  some  strength,  he  exercises  them  to  the  course  ; 
he  excites  their  emulation  by  the  example  of  horses,  and  in  time 
renders  them  equally  swift  and  more  robust.  At  length,  when  he 
is  assured  of  the  strength,  fleetness,  and  sobriety  of  his  camels,  he 
loads  them  with  whatever  is  necessary  for  his  and  their  subsistence, 
departs  with  them,  arrives  unexpectedly  at  the  confines  of  the  des- 
ert, robs  the  first  passenger  he  meets,  pillages  the  straggling  habita- 
tions, loads  his  camels  with  the  booty,  and  if  pursued  is  obliged  to 
accelerate  his  retreat.  It  is  on  these  occasions  that  he  unfolds  his 
own  talents  and  those  of  his  camels ;  he  mounts  one  of  the  fleetest, 
and  conducting  the  troop,  makes  them  travel  night  and  day,  almost 
without  stopping  to  eat  or  drink ;  and  in  this  manner  he  easily 
passes  over  the  space  of  three  hundred  leagues  in  eight  days.  Dur- 
ing all  that  time  of  fatigue  and  travel  he  never  unloads  his  camels, 
and  only  allows  them  an  hour  of  repose,  and  a  ball  of  paste  each 
day.  They  often  rim  in  this  manner  for  eight  or  nine  days,  with- 
out meeting  with  any  water,  and  when  by  chance  there  is  a  pool  at 
some  distance,  they  scent  the  water,  even  when  half  a  league  from 
it.  Thirst  makes  them  redouble  their  pace,  and  they  drink  as  much 
at  once  as  serves  them  for  the  time  that  is  past,  and  for  as  much  to 


48  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

come ;  for  their  journey  often  lasts  them  .several  weeks,  and  their 
abstinence  continues  till  their  journey  is  accomplished. 

The  driest  thistle  and  the  barest  thorn,  are  all  the  food  this  useful 
quadruped  requires ;  and  even  these,  to  save  time,  he  eats  while 
advancing  on  his  journey,  without  stopping  or  occasioning  a  mo- 
inent  of  delay.  As  it  is  his  lot  to  cross  immense  deserts  where  no 
water  is  found,  and  countries  not  even  moistened  with  the  dew  of 
heaven,  he  is  endued  with  the  power,  at  one  watering  place,  to  lay 
in  a  store,  with  which  he  supplies  himself  for  thirty  days  to  come. 
To  contain  this  enormous  quantity  of  fluid,  nature  has  formed  large 
cisterns  within  him,  from  which,  once  filled,  he  draws  at  pleasure 
the  quantity  he  wants,  and  pours  it  into  his  stomach,  with  the  same 
efiect  as  if  he  then  drew  it  from  the  spring. 

Notwithstanding  that  the  ciirnel  is  so  extremely  revengeful  as  to 
bear  in  mind,  and  resent  in  the  most  terrible  manner  any  injury  it 
may  have  sustained,  its  patience  is  the  most  extraordinary.  Its  suf- 
ferings seem  to  be  great ;  for  when  it  is  overloaded,  it  sends  forth  the 
most  lamentable  cries,  but  never  offers  to  resist  the  tyrant  who  op- 
presses it.  At  the  slightest  signs  it  bends  its  knees,  and  lies  upon 
its  belly,  suffering  itself  to  be  loaded  in  this  position ;  at  another 
sign  it  rises  with  its  load,  and  the  driver  getting  upon  ils  back,  en- 
courages the  animal  to  proceed  with  his  voice  and  with  a  song. 

Throughout  Turkey,  Persia,  Egypt,  Arabia,  Barbary,  and  vari- 
ous other  contiguous  countries,  all  kinds  of  merchandise  are  car- 


ried by  camels,  whidh,  of  all  convej^ances,  is  the  most  expeditious, 
and  attended  With  the  least  expence.  Merchants  and  other  travel- 
lers assemble,  and  unite  in  caravans  to  avoid  the  insults  and  rob- 
beries of  the  Arabs.  These  caravans  are  often  numerous,  and  are 


THE  CAMEL.  4§ 

always  composed  of  more  camels  than  men.  Each  camel  is  load- 
ed according  to  his  strength ;  the  larger  ones  carrying  from  a  thou- 
sand to  twelve  hundred  pounds  weight,  and  the  smaller,  from  six 
to  seven  hundred.  Burckhardt  states  that  a  camel  can  never  be 
stopped  while  its  companions  are  moving  on.  The  Arabs  are 
therefore  highly  pleased  with  a  traveller  who  jumps  off  his  beast, 
and  remounts  without  stopping  it,  as  the  act  of  kneeling  down  is 
troublesome  and  fatiguing  to  the  loaded  camel,  and  before  it  can 
rise  again,  the  caravan  is  considerably  ahead.  He  also  affirms  it 
to  be  an  erroneous  opinion,  that  the  camel  delights  in  sandy  ground. 
It  is  true,  he  remarks,  that  he  crosses  it  with  less  difficulty  than 
any  other  animal,  but  wherever  the  sands  are  deep,  the  weight  of 
himself  and  his  load  makes  his  feet  sink  into  the  sand  at  every  step, 
and  he  groans  and  often  sinks  under  his  burden.  Hence,  this  trav- 
eller states  it  to  be,  that  camels'  skeletons  are  found  in  great  num- 
bers where  the  sands  are  deepest.  It  is  the  hard  gravelly  ground 
of  the  desert  which  is  most  agreeable  to  this  animal. 

The  Bactrian  camel  is  distinguished  from  the  Arabian  camel  or 
dromedary,  by  having  two  bunches  on  his  back.     It  is  not  so  mi- 


merous  as  the  other,  and  is  chiefly  confined  to  some  parts  of  Asia. 
Unlike  the  dromedary,  whose  movement,  as  we  have  seen,  is  re- 
markably swift,  the  Bactrian  carnel  proceeds  at  a  slow  and  solemn 
pace. 

From  the  account  now  furnished  of  this  animal,  we  may  see  the 
propriety  and  beauty  of  several  passages  of  scripture,  in  which  it  is 
mentioned  or  alluded  to. 
5 


50  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTO&Y. 

Reviewing  his  own  passing  days,  and  properly  estimating  the 
shortness  of  human  life,  Job  exclaims — 

O  !  swifter  than  a  courier  are  my  days  i 
They  flee  away— they  see  no  good. 
As  SWELLING  SHIPS  they  sweep  on  ; 
As  an  eagle  swooping  on  its  prey. 

This  passage  has  sadly  perplexed  commentators.  The  original 
of  the  third  line,  literally  rendered,  is  'ships  of  Abeh ;'  or,  if  jQbeh 
be  taken  for  swiftness,  'ships  of  swiftness.' 

For  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  what  might  probably  be  the 
intention  of  the  sacred  writer,  Mr.  Taylor  thus  analyses  the  import 
of  the  words  ;  My  days  pass  faster  than  a  running  messenger,  who 
exerts  his  speed  when  sent  on  important  business  ;  they  even  fly, 
like  a  fugitive  who  escapes  for  his  life  from  an  enemy ;  they  do  not 
look  around  them  to  see  for  anything  good ;  they  are  passed  as  ships  of 
swiftness ;  as  a  vulture  flying  hastily  to  the  newly  fallen  prey.  By 
marking  the  climax,  we  find  the  messenger  swift,  the  fugitive  more 
swift,  the  ships  swifter  than  the  fugitive,  and  the  vulture  swiftest 
of  all. 

In  support  of  this  ingenious  conjecture,  Mr.  Taylor  cites  the  fol- 
lowing passage  from  '  honest  Sandys.' 

*  The  whole  caravan  being  now  assembled,  consisted  of  a  thou- 
sand horses,  mules,  and  asses ;  and  of  five  hundred  CAMELS. 
THESE  ARE  THE  SHIPS  OF  ARABIA  ;  THEIR  SEAS  ARE  THE  DES- 
ERTS, a  creature  created  for  burthen,'  &c.  It  does  not  clearly 
appear  in  this  extract,  however,  though  it  might  be  gathered  from 
it,  that  the^  camel  has  the  name  of  the  '  Ship  of  Arabia ;'  But  Mr. 
Bruce  comes  in  to  our  assistance,  by  saying, '  What  enables  the  shep- 
herd to  perform  the  long  and  toilsome  journies  across  Africa,  is 
the  CAMEL,  EMPHATICALLY  CALLED,  BY  THE  ARABS,  THE  SHIP 
OF  THE  DESERT !  he  seems  to  have  been  created  for  this  very 
trade,'  &c.  The  idea  thus  thrown  out,  and  in  a  great  measure 
confirmed  by  Sandys  and  Bruce,  is  further  supported  by  an  account 
of  the  swiftness  of  these  metaphorical  'ships,' furnished  in  Mor- 
gan's '  History  of  Algiers.'  This  writer  states,  that  the  dromedary, 
in  Barbary  called  Aashare,  will,  in  one  night,  and  through  a  level 
country,  traverse  as  much  ground  as  any  single  horse  can  perform 
in  ten.  The  Arabs  affirm,  that  it  makes  nothing  of  holding  its 
rapid  pace,  which  is  a  most  violent  hard  trot,  for  four-and-twcnty 
Iwurs  on  a  stretch,  without  showing  the  least  sijins  of  weariness,  or 
inclination  to  bait ;  and  that,  having  swallowed  a  ball  or  two  of  a  sort 
of  paste,  made  up  of  barley-meal  and  a  little  powder  of  dry  dates, 
with  a  bowl  of  water,  or  camel's  milk,  the  indefatigable  animal  will 
seern  as  fresh  as  atjirst  setting  out,  and  ready  to  continue  running  at  the 
same  scarcely  credible  rate,  for  as  many  hours  longer,  and  so  on  from 
one  extremity  of  the  African  desert  to  the  other,  provided  its  rider 
could  hold  out  without  sleep,  and  other  refreshments.  During  his 
stay  in  Algiers,  Mr.  Morgan  was  once'a  party  in  a  diversion  in  which 


THE  CAMEL.  51 

one  of  these  Jldshari  ran  against  some  of  the  swiftest  Barbs  in  the 
whole  JVe/a,  which  is  famed  for  having  good  ones,  of  the  true 
Libyan  breed,  shaped  like  greyhounds,  and  which  will  sometimes 
run  down  an  ostrich.  The  reader  will  not,  we  apprehend,  be  dis- 
pleased at  our  transferring  his  account  to  these  pages. 

1  We  all  started  like  racers,  and  for  the  first  spurt,  most  of  the 
best  mounted  among  us,  kept  pace  pretty  well ;  but  our  grass-fed 
horses  soon  flagged:  several  of  the  Libyan  and  Numidian  runners 
held  pace,  till  we,  who  still  followed  upon  a  good  round  hand  gal- 
lop, could  no  longer  discern  them,  and  then  gave  out;  as  we  were 
told  after  their  return.  When  the  dromedary  had  been  out  of 
sight  about  half  an  hour,  we  again  espied  it,  flying  towards  us  with 
an  amazing  velocity^  and  in  a  very  few  moments  was  amongst  us,  and 
seemingly  nothing  concerned;  while  the  horses  and  mares  were  all 
on  a  foam,  and  scarcely  able  to  breathe,  as  was  likewise  a  tall  fleet 
greyhound  dog,  of  the  young  princess,  who  had  followed  and  kept 
pace  the  whole  time,  and  was  no  sooner  got  back  to  us,  but  lay 
down  panting  as  if  ready  to  expire.' 

This  account  shows,  also,  with  what  propriety  the  prophet  calls 
this  animal  the  '  swift  dromedary,'  (Jer.  iii.  23,)  as  well  as  the  wis- 
dom of  Esther's  messengers,  in  choosing  it  to  carry  their  despatch- 
es to  the  distant  provinces  of  the  Persian  empire,  Esth.  viii.  10. 

The  writer  just  quoted,  informs  us,  that  the  Arabs  guide  their 
dromedaries  by  means  of  a  thong  of  leather,  which  is  passed 
through  a  hole  purposely  made  in  the  creature's  nose.  Will  not 
this  illustrate  the  expression  in  2  Kings,  xix.  28 :  '  I  will  put  my 
hook  in  thy  nose,  and  my  bridle  in  thy  lips,  and  I  will  turn  thee 
back  by  the  way  by  which  thou  earnest  ?'  This  denotes,  no  doubt, 
the  depth  of  the  Assyrian's  humiliation,  and  the  swiftness  of  his  re- 
treat. 

Another  passage  which  Mr.  Taylor  thinks  may  be  illustrated  by 
the  application  of  the  term  Jl&share  to  a  swift  dromedary,  is  Prov. 
vllO,  11: 

A  little  sleep,  a  little  slumber, 

A  little  folding  of  the  arms  to  sleep  ; 

So  shall  thy  poverty  come  as  one  that  travelleth, 

And  thy  want  as  an  armed  man. 

It  is  evident  that  the  writer  means  to  denote  the  speed  and  rapid- 
ity of  the  approaches  of  penury ;  therefore,  instead  of,  '  one  that 
travelleth,'  we  may  read  '  a  post,  or  quick  messenger,'  an  express. 
But  our  present  business  is  with  the  'armed  man.'  Now,  the  words 
thus  translated,  are  no  where  used  to  denote  an  armed  man,  or  <a 
man  of  a  shield,'  as  some  would  render  them  literally  ;  but  the  Chal- 
dee  paraph rast  translates  them  thus,  '  swift  like  an  AashareJ  or, 
mounted  on  an  Jldshare,  i.  e.  an  */2ds/iare-rider,  to  answer  to  the  post 
or  express,  in  the  former  line.  Thus  we  shall  have  an  increase  of 
swiftness  suggested  here,  as  the  passage  evidently  demands.  The 
sentiment,  on  the  principles  above  suggested,  would  stand  thus: — 


52  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

So  shall  thy  poverty  advance  as  rapidly  as  an  express, 

And  thy  penury  as  a  siroag  and  swift  antagonist  or  [jiashare-riAet.] 

In  that  sublime  prediction,  where  the  prophet  foretels  the  great 
increase  and  flourishing  state  of  Messiah's  kingdoms,  by  the  con- 
version and  accession  of  the  Gentile  nations,  he  compares  the  hap- 
py and  glorious  concourse  to  avast  assemblage  of  camels:  'The 
multitude  of  camels  shall  cover  thee,  the  dromedaries  of  Midian  and 
Ephah.'  That  people,  rather  than  irrational  animals  are  intended, 
is  evident  from  these  words  ;  'All  they  from  Sheba  shall  come; 
they  shall  show  forth  the  praises  of  the  Lord.'  Isa.  Ix.  6.  In  adopt- 
ing this  figure,  the  prophet  might,  perhaps,  have  his  eye  on  the  hie- 
roglyphical  writing  of  the  Egyptians,  in  which  the  figure  of  a  camel 
represented  a  man ;  and  if  so,  besides  its  strict  conformity  to  the 
genius  of  Hebrew  poetry,  we  can  discern  a  propriety  in  its  introduc- 
tion into  this  illustrious  prediction.  Some  interpreters  piously  refer 
the  prophecy  to  Christ  himself;  and  imagine  it  began  to  receive  its 
accomplishment  when  the  magi,  proceeding  from  the  very  places 
mentioned  by  the  prophet,  worshipped  the  new-born  Saviour,  'and 
presented  unto  him  gifts ;  gold,  and  frankincense,  and  myrrh.'  But 
Midian,  and  the  other  places  mentioned  by  the  prophet,  lay  to  the 
south  of  Judea ;  while  the  evangelist  expressly  says  the  magi  carne 
from  the  east ;  which,  as  well  as  their  name,  magi,  or  wise  men, 
clearly  proves  that  Persia  was  their  native  country,  and  the  place  of 
their  abode. 

To  pass  a  camel  through  the  eye  of  a  needle,  was  a  proverbial 
expression  among  the  nations  of  high  antiquity,  denoting  a  difficul- 
ty which  neither  the  art  nor  the  power  of  man  could  surmount. 
Our  Lord  condescends  to  employ  it  in  his  discourse  to  the  disci- 
pies,  to  show  how  extremely  difficult  it  is  for  a  rich  man  to  forsake 
all,  for  the  cause  of  God  and  truth,  and  obtain  the  blessings  of  sal- 
vation :  '  I  say  unto  you,  it  is  easier  for  a  camel  to  go  through  the 
eye  of  a  needle,  than  for  a  rich  man  to  enter  into  the  kingdom  of 
heaven,'  Matthew,  xix.  24.  Many  expositors  are  of  opinion,  that  the 
allusion  is  not  to  the  camel,  but  to  the  cable  by  which  an  anchor  is 
made  fast  to  the  ship  ;  and  for  camel  they  read  camil,  from  which 
our  word  cable  is  supposed  to  be  derived.  It  is  not,  perhaps,  easy 
to  determine,  which  of  these  ought  to  be  preferred;  and  some  inter- 
preters of  considerable  note,  have  accordingly  adopted  both  views. 
Others  have  asserted,  that  there  was  near  Jurusalem  a  low  gate, 
called  the  Needle's  Eye,  under  which  a  camel  could  not  pass  with- 
out being  unloaded. 

However  though  the  exact  proverbial  expression,  which  was 
doubtless  well  understood,  by  those  to  whom  it  was  addressed,  may 
be  to  us  unintelligible,  the  instruction  conveyed  is  obvious.  Riches 
are  a  snare  and  often  a  hindrance  in  the  way  to  heaven  ;  and  the 
heart  that  is  supremely  set  upon  them,  can  never  be  brought  to  a 
cordial  surrender  of  itself  to  the  meek,  lowly,  and  self-denying  Jesus, 
without  which,  it  is  impossible  to  enter  into  bis  kingdom.  But  the 


THE  CAMEL.  53 

things  that  are  impossible  with  men,  are  possible  with  God.  Divine 
Grace  can  do  away  the  impossibility  by  bringing  the  heart,  to  a  wil- 
ling compliance  with  the  requirements  of  the  Gospel. 

In  Matthew,  xxiii.  24,  is  another  proverbial  expression  :  *  Ye  strain 
at  a  gnat,  and  swallow  a  camel.'  Dr.  Adam  Clarke  has  proved, 
that  there  is  an  error  of  the  press,  in  the  English  translation,  by 
which  at  has  been  substituted  for  out.  The  passage  as  it  now 
stands,  conveys  no  sense :  it  should  be,  *  Ye  strain  out  the  gnat,  and 
swallow  down  the  camel.'  The  allusion  is  to  the  custom  which 
prevailed  among  both  Gentiles  and  Jews,  of  straining  the  liquor 
which  they  drank,  for  the  purpose  of  ejecting  those  insects  which 
so  swarm  in  some  southern  countries,  and  hence,  easily  fall  into 
wine- vessels.  Some  of  the  commentators  have  wished  to  get  rid  of 
the  camel  in  this  passage,  from  an  idea  that  our  Lord  could  not  have 
united  so  huge  an  animal  with  so  small  an  insect.  They,  therefore, 
propose  to  understand  a  larger  species  of  fly.  This  conjectural 
emendation,  however,  cannot  be  admitted,  as  it  is  unsupported  by 
all  the  ancient  versions.  The  expression  must  be  taken  hyperboli- 
catty.  To  make  the  antithesis  as  strong  as  may  be,  two  things  are 
selected  as  opposite  as  possible ;  the  smallest  insect,  and  the  largest 
animal.  And  this  very  antithesis  was  used  by  the  Jewish  and 
Greek  writers,  as  appears  from  Wetstein. 

The  expression  has  generally  been  understood  by  English  read- 
ers as  implying  an  effort  to  swallow,  but  rejecting  something  very 
small  and  inconsiderable,  yet  receiving  without  hesitation  some- 
thing much  larger  and  more  important :  but  the  fact  is,  it  alludes  to 
a  custom  the  Jews  had  of  straining  or  filtering  their  wine,  for  fear  of 
swallowing  any  forbidden  insect.  Now,  as  it  would  be  ridiculous 
to  strain  liquor  for  the  sake  of  clearing  it  from  insects,  and  then  eat- 
ing the  largest  of  those  insects ;  so  the  conduct  of  those  is  not  only 
ridiculous,  but  highly  criminal,  who  are  superstitiously  anxious  in 
avoiding  small  fault?,  yet  scruple  not  to  commit  the  greatest  sins. 

Camels  are  spoken  of  in  scripture, 

1.  As  an  article  of  wealth  and  state,  Gen.  xii.  16.  xxx.43,  2  Kings 
vii.  9.  1  Chron.  xxvii.  30.  Ezra,  ii.  67.  Neh.  vii.  69.  Job  i.  2. 

2.  As  used  for  travelling,  Gen.  xxiv.  64.  xxxi.  34.  1  Kings  x.  2. 

3.  As  an  important  means  of  traffic,  Gen.  xxxvii.  25. 1  Chron. 
xii.  40.  Isa.  xxx.  6. 

4.  As  used  in  war,  Judges  vi.  5.  vii.  12. 1  Sam.  xxx.  17.  Jer.  xlix. 
29. 

5.  As  a  spoil  in  war,  Judges  viii.  21.  1  Sam.  xxvii.  9. 1  Chron.  v. 
21.  Job  i.  17.  Jer.  xlix.  32. 

6.  As  sufferers  in  the  plagues  brought  upon  the  brute  creation 
for  the  sin  of  man,  Exod.  ix.  3.  1  Sam.  xv.  3. 

7.  As  furnishing  an  article  of  clothing,  Matt.  iii.  4.  Zech.  xiv.  15. 

8.  Connected  with  these  animals,  we  have  a  pleasing  instance  of 
industry,  humility,  and  courtesy  in  a  young  woman  of  rank  and 
fortune.    Rebekah  was  seen  at  the  well,  condescending  by  person- 
al labor  to  supply  the  wants  of  the  camels  of  Abraham's  servant; 


54  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

nor  did  her  good  disposition  and  good  conduct  go  unrewarded  ; 
those  camels  shortly  after  bore  her  into  the  Land  of  Promise,  to  be- 
come the  wife  of  Abraham's  son,  and  one  in  the  line  of  mothers 
from  whom  He  should  descend,  in  whom  all  the  families  of  the 
earth  are  blessed.  Gen.  xxiv.  19 — 64. 

9.  The  camel  is  prohibited  for  food  as  unclean,  Lev.  xi.  14.  Deut. 
xiv.  7. 

10.  Camels  are  prophetically  and  figuratively  mentioned  in  the 
Old  Testament.     Isaiah  (xxi.  7,)  predicts  the  march  of  Cyrus's 
army  to  the  conquest  and  destruction  of  Babylon  in  the  time  of  Bel- 
shazzar.    Isaiah  (xxx.  6,)  alludes  to  the  folly  and  presumption  of 
the  Israelites,  or  Jews,  or  both,  who  in  the  time  of  their  trouble  car- 
ried treasures  on  camels  into  Egypt,  to  purchase  the  assistance  of 
that  people,  and  acknowledged  not  the  Lord  their  God,  who  alone 
could  save  and  deliver  them.     Isa.  Ix.  6,  is  part  of  a  most  sublime 
prediction,  figurative  of  the  purity  and  enlargement  of  the  church 
in  the  reign  of  the  Messiah,  when  different  nations  shall  with  alacri- 
ty and  zeal  dedicate  themselves  and  their  substance  to  the  service 
of  God. 

Jer.  xlix.  29,  39,  predicts  the  confusion  and  ruin  that  should  be- 
fal  Kedar  and  Hazor,  enemies  of  Israel,  upon  God  whom  God 
would  bring  his  judgments  by  the  hand  of  Nebuchadnezzar  king  of 
Babylon.  The  fulfilment  of  this  prediction  took  place  during  the 
captivity  of  the  Jews,  and  would  tend  greatly  to  encourage  their 
hopes  that  the  promises  of  their  deliverance  and  return  should  also 
in  due  time  be  accomplished.  Very  similar  is  the  prediction,  Ezek. 
xxv.  5,  that  Kabbah,  the  chief  city  of  Ammon,  should  be  taken  as 
a  stable  for  camels  by  the  Chaldeans. 


THE  HORSE. 


THE    HORSE 


THE  spirited  picture  of  the  war-horse  in  the  book  of  Job  is  worthy  of 
the  pen  of  inspiration  ;  but  to  appreciate  its  correctness,  we  must  not 
look  at  him  in  the  pasture  or  the  stable,  merely,  to  which  he  is  con- 
signed by  man,  but  in  those  wild  and  extensive  plains,  where  he  has 
been  originally  produced,  where  he  ranges  without  control,  and 
riots  in  all  the  variety  of  luxurious  nature — and  also  in  the  field  of 
battle,  where  his  native  fire  and  energy  are  called  forth,  and  excited 
into  action,  by  the  clang  of  arms,  and  the  blasts  of  trumpets. 

The  horse  is  universally  allowed  to  be  the  most  beautiful  of  all 
die  quadruped  animals ;  the  noble  largeness  of  his  form,  the  glossy 
smoothness  of  his  skin,  the  graceful  ease  of  his  motions  and  the  ex- 
act symmetry  of  his  shape,  have  taught  us  to  regard  him  as  the 
first,  and  as  the  most  perfectly  formed  ;  and  yet  what  is  extraordi- 
nary enough,  if  we  examine  him  internally,  his  structure  will  be 
found  the  most  different  from  that  of  man  of  all  other  quadrupeds 
whatsoever.  As  the  ape  approaches  us  nearest  in  internal  con- 
formation, so  the  horse  is  the  most  remote ; — a  striking  proof  that 
there  may  be  oppositions  of  beauty,  and  that  all  grace  is  not  to  be 
referred  to  one  standard. 

It  is  not  possible  to  determine  the  country  from  which  the  horse 
originally  came:  that  it  was  from  the  East,  however,  seems  highly 
probable,  since  the  colder  climates  do  not  so  well  agree  with  his 
constitution,  and  also  because  the  most  beautiful,  generous,  swift, 
and  persevering  of  all  horses  in  the  world,  are  found  in  Arabia  and 
Persia. 


5ti  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

The  swiftness  of  these  animals  is  incredible,  and  has  given  occa- 
sion to  some  very  spirited  figures  in  the  sacred  writings.  Thus, 
Isaiah,  describing  the  terrible  devastation  which  the  land  of  Judea 
was  doomed  to  suffer  by  the  Assyrian  armies,  whose  horses  were 
probably  of  the  Persian  breed,  expresses  the  amazingly  rapid  move- 
ments of  their  chariots  with  much  beauty  and  force  :  '  Their  wheels 
shall  belike  a  whirlwind,'  (ch.  v.  28.);  as  does  Jeremiah,  also: 
'Behold,  he  shall  come  up  as  clouds,  and  his  chariots  shall  be  as  a 
whirlwind  ;  his  horses  are  swifter  than  eagles,'  ch.  iv.  14.  The 
prophet  Habakkuk,  in  describing  the  same  quality  of  the  horse, 
uses  a  different  figure,  but  one  equally  striking :  '  Their  horses  are 
swifter  than  the  leopards,  and  more  fierce  than  the  evening  wolves ; 
and  their  horsemen  shall  spread  themselves,  and  their  horsemen 
shall  come  from  far  ;  they  shall  fly  as  the  eagle  that  hasteth  to  eat,' 
ch.  i.  8. 

At  a  very  early  period  of  its  history,  Egpyt  was  famous  for  its 
breed  of  horses,  as  we  learn  from  Exod.  xiv.  9 ;  and  such  appears 
to  have  been  the  excellency  of  the  Egyptian  horses  in  subsequent 
times,  that  the  prophet  Isaiah  declares  to  the  Israelites,  who  were 
disposed  to  put  their  confidence  in  the  time  of  danger  on  the  re- 
sources of  Egypt,  that  'the  Egyptians  were  men,  and  not  God,  and 
their  horses  flesh,  and  not  spirit,'  chap.  xxxi.  3. 

In  early  ages,  horses  were  rare  among  the  Hebrews.  The  pat- 
riachs  had  none  ;  and  after  the  departure  from  Egypt,  it  was  express- 
ly forbidden  to  their  ruler  to  procure  them,  Deut.  xvii.  16.  As 
horses  appear  to  have  been  generally  furnished  by  Egypt,  God  pro- 
hibited them,  1.  Lest  there  should  be  such  commerce  with  Egypt 
as  might  lead  to  idolatry.  2.  Lest  the  people  might  depend  on  a 
well  appointed  cavalry,  as  a  means  of  security,  and  so  cease  from 
trusting  in  the  promised  aid  and  protection  of  Jehovah.  And,  3. 
That  they  might  not  be  tempted  to  extend  their  dominion  by  means 
of  cavalry,  and  so  get  scattered  among  the  surrounding  idolatrous 
nations,  and  thus  cease,  in  process  of  time,  to  be  that  distinct  and 
separate  people  which  God  intended  they  should  be,  and  without 
which  the  prophecies  relative  to  the  Messiah  could  not  be  known 
to  have  their  due  and  full  accomplishment. 

In  the  time  of  the  Judges,  there  were  horses  and  war  chariots 
among  the  Canaanites,  but  the  Israelites  were  without  them  ;  and 
hence  they  were  generally  too  timid  to  venture  down  into  the  plains, 
confining  their  conquests  to  the  mountainous  parts  of  the  country. 
In  the  reign  of  Saul,  horse  breeding  does  not  appear  to  have  been 
introduced  into  Arabia,  for,  in  a  war  with  some  of  the  Arabian  na- 
tions, the  Israelites  sold  plunder,  in  camels,  sheep,  and  asses,  but 
still  no  horses.  Solomon  was  the  first  among  the  Hebrews  who 
established  a  cavalry  force,  and  compared  to  what  is  now  usual,  it 
was  one  of  very  considerable  extent,  1  Kings,  x.  23.  He  also  car- 
ried on  a  trade  in  Egyptian  horses  for  the  benefit  of  the  crown,  2 
Chr.ix.28. 

It  is  evident  from  Judges,  v.  2;  Isa.  v.  28 ;  and  Amos,  vi.  12,  that 


THE  HORSE.  57 

it  was  not  the  practice  among  the  ancients  to  shoe  the  horse,  as  is 
now  done.  For  this  reason,  the  strength  and  firmness,  and  solidi- 
ty of  its  hoof  were  of  much  greater  importance  with  them  than  with 
us,  and  were  esteemed  one  of  the  first  praises  of  a  fine  horse.  The 
latter  of  the  above  cited  passages  may  receive  illustration  from  the 
following  remark :  '  The  Arabs  signify  the  soundess  of  the  feet  of 
grey  horses,  by  an  Arabian  adage,  which  indicates  that  if  a  caval- 
cade be  passing  through  a  stony  country,  the  grey  horses  will  break 
the  stones  with  their  feet ;  this  opinion  appears  founded  on  expe- 
rience, for  in  the  Atlas  mountain,  in  some  parts  of  Suse,  and  in  all 
harsh  stony  districts,  we  find  a  much  greater  proportion  of  grey 
horses  than  of  any  other  color ;  their  feet  are  so  hardy,  that  I  have 
known  them  to  travel  two  days'  journey  through  the  stony  defiles 
of  Atlas,  ivithout  shoes,  over  roads  full  of  loose  broken  stones,  and 
basaltic  rocks.' 

We  read,  in  Zech.  vi.  1 — 3,  of  four  chariots  coming  out  from  be- 
tween two  mountains  of  brass.  '  In  the  first  chariot  were  red 
horses  ;  and  in  the  second  chariot  black  horses  ;  and  in  the  third 
chariot  white  horses ;  and  in  the  fourth  chariot  grisled  and  bay 
horses.'  These  four  chariots  have  been  interpreted  to  be  the 
four  great  monarchies,  Chaldean,  Persian,  Grecian,  and  Roman, 
which  successively  executed  God's  purposes  of  mercy  and  justice ; 
and  the  various  colors  of  the  horses  of  the  different  complexions 
of  those  monarchies.  But  Mr.  Greenfield,  with  more  probability, 
understands  them  of  angels ;  i.  e.  messengers  or  agents,  called  the 
chariots  of  the  LORD,  (Ps.  Ixviii,  37),  by  whom  he  executes  his 
providential  will  on  earth.  The  red  horses  denote  war ;  the  black 
horses  famine  and  pestilence;  the  white  horses  the  removal  of 
judgments ;  and  the  grisled  horses,  a  mingled  dispensation  of  wrath 
and  mercy.  Comp.  Rev.  vi.  2 — 8. 

It  is  well  known  that  many  heathen  nations  have  consecrated 
horses  to  the  sun  or  solar  light,  which  deity  was  represented  as  rid- 
ing in  a  chariot,  drawn  by  the  most  beautiful  and  swiftest  horses 
in  the  world,  and  performing  every  day  his  journey  from  east  to 
west,  to  enlighten  the  earth. 

This  idolatrous  practice  had  infected  Judea,  for  we  read  (2  Kings, 
axiii.  11,)  of  the  horses  which  the  kings  of  Judah  had  given  to  th§ 
gun  or  solar  light. 


58  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

THE  ASS. 


OF  this  animal  there  are  two  varieties  described  by  naturalists — 
the  wild  and  the  domestic.  The  former  we  pass  by  for  the  pres- 
ent, and  direct  our  attention  to  the  latter.  The  usual  appellation 
by  which  this  beast  is  distinguished  in  scripture,  is  CHEMOR,  from 
a  word  which  signifies  to  disturb  or  disorder,  and  it  is  so  called, 
probably,  from  its  extraordinary  turbulence  when  excited.  The 
domestic  ass  being  an  animal  so  well  known,  renders  it  unnecessa- 
ry that  we  should  describe  its  form  and  appearance.  But  it  must 
be  noticed,  that  in  eastern  countries  it  is  larger  and  much  finer  in 
every  respect,  and  so  highly  is  it  valued,  as  to  be  preferred  to  the 
horse  for  many  domestic  purposes.  Asses  are  enumerated  as  con- 
stituting part  of  the  riches  of  Abraham,  Jacob,  and  Job,  (Gen.  xii. 
16;  xxx.  43;  Job  xlii.  12.);  and  Anah,  a  Horite  prince,  did  not 
consider  it  beneath  the  dignity  of  his  character  to  feed  the  asses  be- 
longing to  his  father  Zibeon,  Gen.  xxxvi.  24.  In  the  reign  of  Da- 
vid, they  were  of  so  much  importance  that  Jedheiah  the  Merono- 
thite,  a  prince  of  Israel,  was  appointed  to  superintend  the  breed,  1 
Chron.  xxvii.  30.  To  ride  upon  an  ass  was,  in  the  days  of  the 
Judges,  a  mark  of  distinction,  to  which  it  is  probable,  the  vulgar 
might  not  presume  to  aspire.  This  is  evident  from  the  brief  no- 
tices which  the  inspired  historian  gives  of  the  greatness  and  riches 
of  Jair,  the  Gileadite,  one  of  the  Judges;  'He  had  thirty  sons  who 
rode  on  thirty  ass  colts  ;  and  they  had  thirty  cities,  which  are  called 
Havoth-Jair  unto  this  day,'  Judges  x.  3,  4.  Abdon,  the  Pirathonite, 
another  of  the  Judges,  'had  forty  sons  and  thirty  nephews,  who 
rode  on  threescore  and  ten  ass  colts,'  ch.  xii.  13,  14.  In  several  of 
these  passages,  it  should  be  observed,  a  particular  kind  of  the  do- 
mestic ass  is  spoken  of— the  ATON — whose  value,  if  we  may  judge 
from  the  circumstances  in  which  we  generally  find  it  placed,  by  far 
exceeded  that  of  the  ordinary  description. 


THE  ASS.  59 

It  is  reasonable  to  suppose,  that  the  manners  and  customs  of  the 
chosen  tribes  underwent  a  change  when  the  government  became 
monarchical,  and  the  fascinating  pleasures  of  a  court  began  to  exert 
their  usual  influence  ;  still,  however,  the  ass  kept  his  place  in  the 
service  of  the  great.  Mephibosheth,  the  grandson  of  Saul,  rode  on 
an  ass;  as  did  Ahithopel,  the  prime  minister  of  David,  and  the 
greatest  statesman  of  that  age.  Even  so  late  as  the  reign  of  Jeho- 
ram  the  son  of  Ahab,  the  services  of  this  animal  were  required  by 
the  wealthy  Israelite  :  for  the  Shunamite,  a  person  of  high  rank, 
saddled  her  ass,  and  rode  to  Carmel,  the  residence  of  Elisha,  to  an- 
nounce the  death  of  her  son  to  the  prophet,  and  to  solicit  his  assist- 
ance, 2  Kings,  iv.  8,  24. 

But  as  the  number  of  horses  increased  in  Judea,  and  people  of 
rank  and  fashion  became  fonder  of  pomp  and  show,  the  movements 
of  the  nobler  and  statelier  animal  were  preferred  to  the  rapid  but 
less  dignified  motions  of  the  ass.  This  change,  it  is  reasonable  to 
suppose,  began  to  take  place  from  the  accession  of  Solomon  to  the 
throne  of  Israel;  for  that  rich  and  splendid  prince  collected  a  very 
numerous  stud  of  the  finest  horses  that  Egypt  and  Arabia  could 
furnish.  One  thing  is  certain,  viz.  that  after  the  Jews  returned 
from  their  long  captivity  in  Babylon,  the  great  and  fashionable,  for 
the  most  part,  rode  the  horse  or  the  mule.  The  ass  was  resigned 
to  the  use  of  the  lower  orders,  and  it  quickly  became  a  mark  of 
poverty  and  meanness  to  appear  in  public  on  that  animal.  It  has 
been  for  want  of  attending  to  this  change  in  the  customs  of  the 
Jewish  people,  that  some  commentators  of  repute  have  ventured  to 
oppose  the  obvious  meaning  of  Matt.  xxi.  4,  5,  which  describes  our 
Saviour  as  riding  into  Jerusalem  upon  an  ass ;  a  circumstance 
which,  both  here  and  in  the  prophecy  (Zech.  ix.  9),  is  represented 
as  a  proof  of  his  meek  and  lowly  spirit.  They,  however,  by  refer- 
ring to  the  usage  in  the  early  periods  of  the  common  v/ealth,  have 
considered  the  circumstance  as  reflecting,  in  the  estimation  of  the 
people,  high  honor  upon  his  character. 

The  ass  being  an  unclean  animal,  whose  flesh  was  prohibited  by 
the  Mosaic  law,  renders  2  Kings,  vi.  25,  somewhat  perplexing: — 
'  And  there  was  a  great  famine  in  Samaria,  until  an  ass's  head  was 
sold  for  eighty  pieces  of  silver.'  The  difficulty  in  understanding 
this  passage,  according  to  our  translation,  would  not  be  so  great, 
did  we  not  know,  that  however  lax  the  Jews  were  in  points  of 
morality,  no  kind  or  extent  of  suffering  could  induce  them  to  vio- 
late the  ceremonial  precepts  of  the  law,  and  more  especially  those 
which  referred  to  meats.  The  late  editor  of  Calrnet  has  succeeded, 
we  believe,  in  correctly  interpreting  the  passage.  In  1  Sam.  xvi, 
20,  we  read  in  our  Bibles,  'And  Jesse  took  an  ass  laden  with 
bread ;'  where  the  words  *  laden  with,'  are  an  addition  to  our  trans- 
lators, the  original  being  ass  bread,  or,  an  ass  of  bread,  meaning,  as 
Mr.  Taylor  conjectures,  not  an  animal,  but  a  vessel,  containing 
bread  ;  a  stated  measure,  or  a  pile ;  the  LXX.  render  *  a  chomer  of 
bread.'— So  we  find  in  the  Greek  poet  Sosibus, « He  ate  three  times 


60  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

in  the  space  of  a  single  day,  three  great  asses  of  bread,'— which 
Cassaubon  understands  of  the  lading  of  ihres  asses ;  whereas  it 
means  the  contents  of  three  vases  of  the  kind  called  an  ass.*  We 
may  also  doubt,  whether  Abigail  (1  Sam.  xxv.  18.)  really  loaded 
asses — quadrupeds — with  her  presents  to  David ;  for  the  original 
literally  is,  «  she  took  two  hundred  of  bread,  &c.  and  placed  them 
on  THE  asses ;  which  suggests  something  distinct  from  asses,  ani- 
imals  ;  for  then  it  would  be,  as  it  is  in  our  version,  '  she  placed  them 
on  asses.'  Besides,  there  is  a  passage  (Ex.  viii.  14,)  where  our 
translators  themselves  have  rendered  heaps,  what  in  the  original  is 
asses  asses ;  *  They  gathered  the  frogs  together,  asses  asses ;'  t.  e. 
many  of  that  quantity  called  an  ass, ;  and  so  Samson  says  of  his 
defeated  enemies,  ca  heap,  heaps ;  ass  asses.'  Now,  if  we  take  our 
English  word  pile,  to  signify  this  quantity,  without  attempting  to 
determine  accurately,  it  will  lead  us  to  the  idea,  that  Jesse  sent  to 
Saul  a  pile  of  bread  ;  that  a  person  ate  three  piles  of  bread  in  one 
day;  that  Abigail  placed  her  bread,  wine,  corn,  raisins,  and  figs  in 
piles  ;  that  the  Egyptians  gathered  the  frogs  in  piles ;  that  Samson's 
enemies  laid  in  piles.  In  these  renderings  there  is  nothing  strained 
or  unnatural.  Let  this  vindicate  those  Jews,  then,  who  translate 
the  passage  which  has  given  occasion  to  these  observations,  not 
'  the  head  of  an  ass,'  but  'the  head  of  a  measure ;'  for  the  letters  are 
precisely  the  same  in  the  original.  '  But  what  must  we  do  with 
the  head  ?'  inquires  Mr.  Taylor,  to  which  he  ingeniously  adds,  that 
the  word  rash,  here  rendered  head,  signifies  the  total,  entirety ;  the 
whole,  as  Psalms,  cxxxix.  17  ;  '  How  precious  also  are  thy  thoughts 
to  me,  O  God!  How  great  is  the  head  [sum]  of  them' — the  total- — 
the  entirety.  Exod.  xxx.  12 ;  •  VV  hen  thou  takest  the  head  [sum  to- 
tal— whole  enumeration]  of  the  children  of  Israel,'  &c.  These 
ideas  combined  will  render  the  passage  to  this  effect : — 'The  famine 
was  so  severe,  that  the  whole  of  a  pile?  \.  e.  of  bread,  or  a  complete 
pile  of  bread,  '  sold  for  eighty  pieces  of  silver.'  It  must  not  be  con- 
cealed, however,  that  there  is  no  mention  of  bread  in  the  original* 
and  therefore  the  quantity  which  the  word  pile  is  here  used  to  sig- 
nify, is  so  far  indeterminate 

In  one  part  of  the  ritual,  the  Hebrews  were  forbidden  to  plough 
with  an  ox  and  an  ass  together. — See  Dent.  xxii.  10.  It  is  genei- 
ally  thought,  that  mixtures  of  different  sorts  in  seeds,  breed,  &c. 
were  made  for  superstitious  purposes  by  the  heathen,  and  therefore 
prohibited  by  Moses.  It  is  more  likely,  however,  that  there  was  a 
physical  reason  for  this  law.  Two  beasts  of  a  different  species  can- 
not associate  comfortably  together  ;  and  on  this  ground,  never  pull 
pleasantly  either  in  cart  or  plough :  and  every  farmer  knows,  that 
it  is  of  considerable  consequence  to  the  comfort  of  the  cattle,  to  put 
those  together  that  have  an  affection  for  each  other.  This  may  be 

*  M.  Reland  lias  shown,  by  a  great  number  of  authorities,  that  the  heathen  called  a 
sort  of  bottle  with  two  handles,  asses  ;  probably  because  they  had  two  long  handles,  hav- 
ing some  conformity  to  the  ears  of  an  ass.  He  judges  this  to  be  the  reason  why  it  was 
»aid  by  the  ancients,  that  Silenus,  tho  servant  of  Bacchus,  was  carried  upon  an  ass. 


THE  ASS.  61 

frequently  remarked  in  certain  cattle,  which  on  this  account  are 
termed  true  yoke-fellows.  After  all,  says  Dr.  A.  Clarke,  following 
Le  Clerc,  it  is  very  probable  that  the  general  design  was,  to  prevent 
improper  alliances  in  civil  and  religious  life.  And  to  this,  Paul 
seems  evidently  to  refer,  2  Cor.  vi.  14  ;  'Be  ye  not  unequally  yoked 
with  unbelievers  ; '  which  is  to  be  understood  as  prohibiting  all  in- 
tercourse between  Christians  and  idolaters,  in  social,  matrimonial, 
and  religious  life.  To  teach  the  Jews  the  propriety  of  this,  a  varie- 
ty of  precepts  relative  to  improper  and  heterogeneous  mixtures  were 
interspersed  through  their  law ;  so  that  in  civil  and  domestic  life, 
they  might  have  them  ever  before  their  eyes. 

There  are  several  other  references  to  this  laborious  and  patient 
animal  in  the  sacred  scriptures ;  but  it  is  not  necessary  that  we 
should  advert  to  them.  We  select  the  following  from  the  excellent 
work  of  Professor  Paxton. 

The  ass  is  not  more  remarkable  for  his  power  to  sustain,  than  for 
his  patience  and  tranquillity  when  oppressed  by  an  unequal  load. 
Like  the  camel,  he  quietly  submits  to  the  heaviest  burden  ;  he  bears 
it  peaceably  till  he  can  proceed  no  further;  and  when  his  strength 
fails  him,  instead  of  resisting,  or  endeavoring  to  throw  off  the  oppres- 
sive weight,  he  contentedly  lies  down,  and  rests  himself  under  it, 
recruits  his  vigor  with  the  provender  that  may  be  offered  to  him, 
and  then,  at  the  call  of  his  master,  proceeds  on* his  journey.  To  this 
trait  in  the  character  of  that  useful  animal,  the  dying  patriarch  evi- 
dently refers,  when,  under  the  afflatus  of  inspiration,  he  predicts  the 
future  lot  of  Issachar  and  his  descendants  ; 

*  Issachar  is  a  strong  as?, 
Crouching  between  two  burdens  "r 
And  ho  saw  that  the  rest  was  good, 
And  the  land,  that  it  was  pleasant  j 
And  he  bowed  his  shoulder  to  bear, 
And  became  a  servant  to  tribute.' 

Gen.  xlix.  14. 

The  meaning  of  the  prophecy  evidently  is,  that  this  tribe,  natural- 
ly dull  and  stupid,  should,  like  the  creature  by  which  they  are  char- 
acterized, readily  submit  to  the  vilest  master  and  the  meanest  ser- 
vice. Although,  like  the  ass,  possessed  of  ability,  if  properly  direct- 
ed, to  shake  off  the  inglorious  yoke  of  servitude,  they  would  basely 
submit  to  the  insults  of  the  Phoenicians  on  the  one  hand,  and  of  the 
Samaritans  on  the  other.  Issar.har  was  a  strong  ass,  '  able,'  says  a 
sprightly  writer,  'to  refuse  a  load  as  well  as  to  bear  it ;  but,  like  the 
passive  drudge  which  symbolized  him,  he  preferred  inglorious  ease 
to  the  gains  of  a  just  and  well  regulated  freedom;  and  a  yoke  of 
bondage  to  the  doubtful  issues  of  war.' 

The  Oriental  husbandman  was  not  less  indebted  to  this  creature, 
for  his  services,  than  the  statesman  and  the  merchant.  The  ox  and 
the  ass  labored  together  in  the  cultivation  of  the  same  field.  To  this 
Isaiah  evidently  refers,  in  the  following  prediction  ;  'The  oxen  like- 
wise, and  the  young  asses,  that  ear  (or  till)  the  ground,  shall  eat  clean 
,6 


62  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

provender,  which  hath  been  winnowed  with  the  shovel  and  with 
the  fan.'  Isaiah  xxx.  24.  la  these  words  he  foretels  a  season  of 
great  plenty,  when  the  cattle  shall  he  fed  with  corn  better  in  quality, 
separated  from  the  chaff,  and  (as  the  term  rendered  clean  in  our  ver- 
sion properly  signifies)  acidulated,  to  render  it  more  grateful  to  their 
taste.  The  evangelist  clearly  refers  to  the  practice  which  was  com- 
mon in  Palestine,  of  ploughing  with  the  ass,  when  he  calls  him  a 
creature  subject  to  the  yoke,  Matt.  xxi.  5. 

In  rice  grounds,  which  require  to  be  flooded,  the  ass  was  em- 
ployed to  prepare  them  for  tho  seed,  by  treading  them  with  his  feet. 
It  is  to  this  method  of  preparing  the  ground  that  Chardin  supposes 
the  prophet  to  allude,  when  he  says,  '  Blessed  are  ye  that  sow  be- 
side all  waters,  that  send  forth  thither  the  feet  of  the  ox  and  the  ass,' 
Isaiah  xxxii.  20.     They  shall  be  blessed  under  the  future  reign  of 
the  promised  Messiah.     In  times  anterior  to  his  appearing,  their 
country  was  to  be  made  a  desolation ;  briers  and  thorns  were  to  en- 
cumber their  fields ;  their  sumptuous  dwellings  were  to  be    cast 
down ;  their  cities  and  strong-holds  were  to  be  levelled  with  the 
dust.  But  when  Messiah  commences  his  reign,  times  of  unequalled 
prosperity  shall  begin  their  career.     The  goodness  of  Jehovah  shall 
descend  in  fertilizing  showers,  to  invigorate  their  fields,  and  to  swell 
the  streams  which  the  skill  and  industry  of  the  husbandman  con- 
duct  among  his  plantations,  or  with  which  he  covers  his  rice- 
grounds.     Secure  from  the  ruinous  incursions  of  aliens,  and  in  the 
sure  hope  of  an  abundant  harvest,  he  shall  scatter  his  rice  on  the 
face  of  the  superincumbent  water,  and  tread  it  into  the  miry  soil, 
with  'the  feet  of  the  ox  and  the  ass.'     Prosperous  and  happy  him- 
self, he  will  consider  it  his  duty,  and  feel  it  his  delight,  *  to  do  good 
and  communicate,' — to  succor  the  widow  and  the  fatherless,  to 
open  his  doors  to  the  stranger,  to  diffuse  around  him  the  light  of 
truth,  and  to  swell,  by  the  diligent  and  prudent  use  of  all  the  means 
that  providence  has  brought  within  his  reach,  the  sum  of  human 
enjoyment. 

But  the  services  of  this  useful  animal  were  not  sufficient,  even  in 
times  of  primitive  simplicity,  to  save  him  from  every  kind  of  abuse. 
At  one  time  he  suffers  from  neglect,  at  another,  from  oppressive 
labor ;  and  seldom  experiences  from  ungrateful  man  the  kindness 
and  indulgence  to  which  he  is  fairly  entitled.  From  the  watchful 
care  of  the  Creator,  however,  he  has  not  been  excluded  :  even  to  his 
subsistence,  comfort,  and  ease,  the  gracious  attention  of  heaven  has 
been  directed.  See  Exod.  xxiii.  12  ;  Zee.  xiii.  5  ;  xiv.  5.  The  man 
of  benevolence,  who  treats  even  his  uss  with  kindness,  shall  not  lose 
his  reward  :  besides  the  approbation  of  God  and  his  own  conscience, 
he  shall  be  attended  with  the  affectionate  attachment  of  the  animal 
itself.  Dull  and  stupid  as  he  is,  the  ass,  according  to  Buffon,  smells 
his  master  at  a  distance,  searches  the  places  and  roads  which  he 
used  to  frequent,  and  easily  distinguishes  him  from  the  rest  of  man- 
kind. An  equal  degree  of  gratitude  is  not  always  to  be  found  among 
rational  beings  towards  their  greatest  and  best  Benefactor.  The 


THE  MULE.  63 

ass,  although  destitute  of  reason,  and  even  duller  than  many  other 
animals  ;  although  commonly  hard  wrought  and  unkindly  treated, 
— discovers  an  attachment  to  his  master,  which  the  people  of  Israel 
did'not  feel  for  the  living  God,  who  daily  loaded  them  with  his 
benefits.  This  trait  in  his  character  gives  uncommon  poignancy  to 
the  prophet's  reproof:  *  The  ox  knoweth  his  owner,  and  the  ass  his 
master's  crib,'— he  is  not  insensible  to  the  kindness  of  his  benefac- 
tors ;  *  but  Israel  doth  not  know'  the  God  of  his  salvation ;  '  my 
people  doth  not  consider '  from  whose  hand  they  receive  all  their 
blessings,  nor  what  return  they  owe  to  him  for  his  unmerited  kind- 


THE    MULE  . 

THIS  is  an  animal  out  of  the  ordinary  course  of  nature,  being 
Tared  from  an  union  of  the  horse  and  the  ass.  In  the  preceding  ar- 
ticle, we  have  stated  it  to  have  been  strictly  forbidden  in  the  Mosaic 
code,  to  unite  either  seeds  or  animals  of  divers  natures,  and  thus  de- 
stroy the  marked  distinction  which  God  has  formed  between  the 
several  parts  of  his  creation.  Hence  it  does  not  appear  that  these 
animals  were  ever  bred  by  the  Hebrews,  although  they  were  cer- 
tainly much  used  among  them  during  the  latter  part  of  the  common- 
wealth. The  earliest  mention  which  we  find  of  the  mule,  in  scrip- 
ture, is  in  the  reign  of  David,1  (2  Sam.  xiii.  29) ,  unless,  as  some 
commentators  have  thought,  they  are  spoken  of  in  Gen.  xxxvi.  24, 
— a  passage  which  has  given  rise  to  much  critical  conjecture.  Enu- 
merating the  children  of  Zibeon,  the  Horite,  the  sacred  writer  says 
of  one  of  them  :  'This  was  that  Anah  that  found  the  mules  in  the 
wilderness,  as  he  fed  the  asses  of  Zibeon  his  father.' 

The  mule  has  been  much  employed  for  domestic  purposes,  both 
in  ancient  and  modern  times.  In  the  reign  of  David  they  formed 
part  of  the  state  equipage,  (1  Kings  i.  33;  2  Sam.  xiii.  29,  &c.); 
they  were  presented  among  other  costly  gifts  to  Solomon,  (1  Kings 
x.  25) ;  and  when  the  utmost  expedition  was  required,  they  were 
employed  by  Mordecai  and  Esther  to  convey  their  despatches 
throughout  the  Persian  empire,  Esth.  viii.  10.  The  Roman  ladies 
had  equipages  drawn  by  mules,  as  appears  from  the  medals  of  Julia 
and  Agrippina  ;  and  at  the  present  day,  the  coaches  of  the  nobility 
in  Spain  are  usually  drawn  by  them. 

For  travelling  over  wild  and  mountainous  tracts  of  country,  the 
mule  is  said  to  be  preferable  to  the  horse,  being  much  more  sure- 
footed. Their  manner  of  going  down  the  Alps,  Andes,  &c.  is  very 
extraordinary.  In  these  passages,  on  one  side  are  steep  eminences, 
and  on  the  other,  frightful  abysess ;  and  as  they  generally  follow 
the  direction  of  the  mountain,  the  road,  instead  of  lying  in  a  level, 


64  SCRIPTURE   NATURAL   HISTORY. 

forms,  at  every  little  distance,  steep  declivities  of  several  hundred 

yards  downward.     These  can  only  be  descended  by  mules,  and 

the  animals  themselves  seern  sensible  of  the  danger,  and  the  caution 

to  be  used  in  such  descents.     When  they  come  to  the  edge  of  one 

of  these  precipices,  they  stop  without  being  checked  by  the  rider, 

and  if  he  inadvertently  attempts  to  spur  them  on,  they  continue  im- 

inoveable.     They  seem  all  this  time  ruminating  on  the  peril  that 

lies  before  them,  and  preparing  themselves  for  the  encounter.  They 

not  only  attentively  view  the  road,  but  tremble  and  snort  at  the 

danger.     Having  prepared  for  the  descent,  they  place  their  fore  feet 

in  a  posture  as  if  they  were  stopping  themselves ;  they  then  also  put 

their  hind  feet  together,  but  a  little  forward,  as  if  they*  were  going  to 

lie  down.     In  this  attitude,  having,  as  it  were,  taken  a  survey  of  the 

road,  they  slide  down  with  the  swiftness  of  a  meteor.     At  this  time, 

all  the  rider  has  to  do  is  to  keep  himself  fast  on  the  saddle,  without 

checking  the  reins,  for  the  least  motion  is  sufficient  to  check  the 

equilibrium  of  the  mule,  in  which  case  both  he  and  his  rider  would 

perish.     The  address  of  these  animals  in  this  rapid  descent  is  truly 

wonderful,  for  in  their  swiftest  motion,  when  they  seem  to  have 

lost  all  government  of  themselves,  they  follow  exactly  the  different 

windings  of  the  road,  as  if  they  had  previously  settled  in  their  minds 

the  route  they  were  to  follow,  and  had  taken  every  precaution  for 

their  safety.     Some  mules,  after  having  been  long  used  in  such 

journies,  acquire  a  sort  of  reputation  for  their  safety  and  skill,  and 

their  value  rises  in  proportion  to  their  celebrity. 


THE    OX. 

THE  ox,  by  which  the  natural  historian  means  black  cattle  in 
general,  without  regard  to  sex,  is  one  of  the  most  precious  and  use- 
lul  to  man,  among  the  herbivorous  animals.  Easily  tamed,  and  of 
a  gentle  and  placid  temper,  he  is  maintained  at  small  expense  ;  and 
while  he  consumes  but  little,  he  enriches  and  improves  the  ground 
from  which  he  draws  his  substance.  He  patientty  lends  his  neck 
to  {he  yoke,  and  exerts  his  great  muscular  strength  in  bearing  our 
burdens,  in  preparing  our  fields  for  the  seed,  and,  to  this  day  in 
eastern  regions,  in  separating  the  chaff  from  the  grain,  after  he  has 
assisted  in  gathering  in  the  harvest.  The  milk  of  the  herd  supplies 
us  with  a  rich  and  pleasant  beverage  ;  the  flesh  with  a  nutritious 
food ;  the  skin  forms  a  part  of  our  covering,  and  in  many  parts  of  the 
world  still  contributes  to  the  defence  of  warriors  in  the  day  of  bat- 
tle. Scarcely  a  part  of  this  animal  indeed  can  be  named,  which  is 
not  daily  rendered  subservient  to  the  purposes  of  utility  and  ele- 
gance. In  the  patriarchal  ages,  the  ox  constituted  no  inconsiderable 


THE  OX.  65 

portion  of  their  wealth  ;  aud  he  is  still  the  basis  of  the  riches  of  na- 
tions, which  in  general  flourish  only  in  proportion  to  the  cultivation 


of  their  territories,  and  the  number  of  their  cattle.  In  these,  all 
real  wealth  consists ;  for  silver  and  gold  are  only  representations  of 
riches,  possessing  in  themselves  little  intrinsic  value. 

These  remarks  are  verified,  by  the  notice  which  the  sacred  wri- 
ters take  of  the  ox,  when  they  describe  the  wealth  of  primordial 
generations  :  *  Abraham,'  say  they, '  was  very  rich  in  cattle,  in  sil- 
ver, and  in  gold.'  '  The  Lord  has  blessed  my  master  greatly,'  said 
the  steward  of  Abraham's  house, '  and  he  has  become  great ;  and 
he  has  given  him  flocks,  and  herds,  and  silver,  and  gold,  and  men- 
servants,  and  maid-servants,  and  camels,  and  asses,'  Gen.  xxiv.  35. 
Similar  language  is  used  in  relation  to  the  riches  of  Jacob :  '  The 
man  increased  exceedingly,  and  had  much  cattle,  and  maid-servants, 
and  men-servants,  and  camels,  and  asses,'  Gen.  xxx,  43.  Another 
instance  only  shall  be  given  from  the  book  of  Job  :  '  His  substance 
also  was  seven  thousand  sheep,  and  three  thousand  camels,  and 
five  hundred  yoke  of  oxen,  and  five  hundred  she-asses,  and  a  very 
great  household  ;  so  that  the  man  was  the  greatest  of  all  the  men 
of  the  east,'  Job  i.  3.  So  highly  valued  was  this  animal,  that  it  was, 
not  thought  too  mean  a  present  for  a  king  to  make  in  ancient  times 
to  his  ally  ;  for  Moses  informs  us,  that  *  Abimelech  took  sheep,  and 
oxen,  and  men-servants,  and  women-servants,  and  gave  them  to 
Abraham,'  Gen.  xx.  14.  Soon  afleVwards  these  eminent  person- 
ages entered  into  a  treaty  with  each  other,  and,  on  that  occasion, 
Abraham  *  took  sheep,  and  oxen,  and  gave  them  to  Abimelech,' 

The  ox,  especially  when  fattened,  is  of  a  rounder  form  than  any 
other  domestic  animal;  a  circumstance  which  has  given  him  a 
name  in  the  Hebrew  text.    The  beauty  of  his  shape  Itas  been  cele- 
brated in  the  lines  of  the  heathen  poetSj  and  acknowledged  in  the 
6* 


66  SCRIPTURE   NATURAL   HISTORY. 

dictates  of  inspiration.  In  the  prophecies  of  Jeremiah,  the  king- 
dom of  Egypt  is  compared  to  'a  very  fair  heifer/  (Jer.  xlvi.  20); 
and  the  same  allusion  is  involved  in  these  words  of  Hosea:  '  And 
Ephraim  is  as  a  heifer  that  is  taught,  and  loveth  to  tread  out  the 
corn  ;  but  I  passed  over  upon  her  fair  neck,'  Hos.  x.  11. 

An  air  of  grandeur  and  majesty  has  been  remarked  in  the  mo- 
tion and  attitudes  of  this  animal,  which  justify  the  figure  Moses  em- 
ploys in  the  blessing  which  he  pronounces  on  the  tribe  of  Joseph: 
*  His  glory  is  like  the  firstling  of  his  bullock ;'  the  generosity  of  his 
heart,  and  the  majesty  of  his  presence,  Avere  conspieuou*  in  the 
amiable  and  dignified  father  of  that  tribe,*  the  preserver  of  his  fami- 
ly, and  an  eminent  type  of  our  gracious  Redeemer. 

The  playful  disposition  of  a  young  ox,  the  son  of  the  herd,  as 
the  Hebrews  beautifully  call  him,  has  been  remarked  by  writers  of 
every  age.  It  is  therefore  with  strict  propriety  that  the  Hebrew 
bard  compares  the  shaking  of  the  earth,  and  the  reeling  of  the 
mountains  with  all  their  forests,  when  Jehovah  descended  in  terri- 
ble majesty,  to  deliver  the  law  from  the  top  of  Sinai,  to  the  frisk- 
ings  of  a  young  calf:  'He  maketh  them  also  to  skip  like  a  calf: 
Lebanon  and  Sirion  like  a  young  unicorn,'  Psalms  xxix.  6.  The 
prophet  Jeremiah  is  supposed,  by  ancient  interpreters,  to  refer  to 
the  same  circumstance,  where  he  foretels  the  ruin  of  Babylon: 
'Because  ye  were  glad,  because  ye  rejoiced,  O  ye  destroyers  of 
mine  heritage :  because  ye  are  grown  fat,'  or  sport,  'as  the  heifer  at 
grass,  and  bellow  as  bulls.'  A  similar  allusion  is  made  by  Malachi, 
when  he  describes  the  glorious  appearance  of  the  promised  Messi- 
ah, and  the  joy  of  his  people  :  'But  unto  you  that  fear  my  name, 
shall  the  Sun  of  Righteousness  arise  with  healing  in  his  wings ; 
and  ye  shall  go  forth  and  grow  up,  (or  gambol,)  as  calves  of  the 
stall,'  Mai.  iv.  2. 

The  strength  of  this  animal  is  too  remarkable  to  require  descrip- 
tion ;  and  his  courage  and  fierceness  are  so  great,  that  he  ventures 
at  times  to  combat  the  lion  himself.  Nor  is  he  more  celebrated  for 
these  qualities,  than  for  his  disposition  to  unite  with  those  of  his 
kind  against  their  common  enemy,  For  these  reasons  he  has  been 
chosen  by  the  spirit  of  inspiration,  to  symboli/ethe  powerful,  fierce 
and  implacable  enemies  of  our  blessed  Redeemer ;  who,  forgetting 
their  personal  animosities,  combined  against  his  precious  life,  and 
succeeded  in  procuring  his  crucifixion:  'Many  bulls  have  com- 
passed me;  strong  bulls  of  Bashan  have  beset  me  around,'  Ps. 
xxii.  12.  Nor  can  we  conceive  a  more  striking  and  appropriate 
symbol  of  a  fierce  and  ruthless  warrior;  an  instance  of  which  oc- 
elli's in  that  supplication  of  David  ;  'Rebuke  the  company  of  the 
spearmen,  the  multitude  of  the  bulls,  with  the  calves  of  the  people, 
till  every  one  submit  himself  with  pieces  of  silver,'  Ps.  Ixviii.  30. 
In  the  sublime  description  of  Isaiah,  which  seems  to  refer  to  some 
great  revolutions,  to  be  effected  in  times  long  posterior  to  the  age 
in'which  he  flourished  ;  probably  in  these  last  days,  antecedent  to 
the  millennial  state  of  the  church  •,  the  complete  destruction  of  her 


THE  OX.  67 

strong  and  cruel  enemies  is  thus  foretold :  '  And  the  unicorns  shall 
come  down  with  them,  and  the  bullocks  with  the  bulls,  and  their 
land  shall  be  soaked  with  blood,  and  their  dust  made  fat  with  fat- 
ness,' Isaiah  xxxiv.  7. 

The  ox  is  a  heavy  and  sluggish  animal,  blunt  in  his  feelings,  and 
almost  destitute  of  sagacity ;  yet  he  may  be  subdued  to  the  yoke, 
taught  to  recognise  his  master,  and  to  persevere  with  patient  indus- 
try in  his  service.  It  is  therefore,  with  peculiar  force  and  beauty, 
the  prophet  contrasts  his  character  and  actions  with  the  dispositions 
and  behavior  of  Israel,  who,  although  taught  by  God'  more  than 
the  beast  of  the  field,  had,  by  yielding  to  their  vicious  propensities, 
become  more  brutish  than  the  dullest  and  most  stupid  of  the;  lower 
animals:  'The  oxknoweth  his  owner,  and  the  ass  his  master's  crib; 
but  Israel  doth  not  know,  my  people  do  not  consider,'  Isa.  i.  3. 

The  ox,  like  all  the  lower  animals,  is  neither  tormented  by  reflect- 
ing on  the  past,  nor  guessing  at  the  future  ;  he  grazes  without  fear 
or  doubt,  amidst  the  green  pastures,  and  fattens  for  the  knife,  uncon- 
scious of  the  doom  that  awaits  him  ;  and  when  his  owner  comes  and 
leads  him  away  to  the  slaughter,  his  brute  imagination  only  figures 
a  richer  meadow,  or  a^  more  agreeable  companion.  Equally  uncon- 
scious and  cheerful  is  the  miserable  youth,  who  is  entangled  in  the 
toils  of  sin,  and  led  away  to  forbidden  pleasures.  He  is  not  aware 
of  his  danger  and  his  misery :  he  goes  with  blind  infatuation,  and 
pitiable  mirth  to  his.  destruction  :  '  He  goeth  after  her  straightway, 
as  an  ox  goeth  to  the  slaughter,  or  as  a  fool  to  the  correction  of 
the  stocks,'  Prov.  vii.  22. 

Under  the  law,  Jehovah  commanded  a  red  heifer  (the  prevailing 
color  in  the  east,)  to  be  offered  as  a  kind  of  sin  offering,  to  purify 
from  certain  legal  defilements.  The  animal  was  killed  and  then 
burnt  without  the  camp  (as  the  sin  offering  was  upon  the  great  day 
of  atonement,}  and  the  blood  sprinkled  seven  times  directly  before 
the  tabernacle,  although  it  was  not  shed  at  the  altar.  The  law  of 
Moses  only  required,  that  the  heifer  should  be  red,  and  young,  with- 
out spot  and  blemish ;  and  which  had  never  been  subjected  to  the 
yoke.  To  these  plain  instructions,  the  Jews  added  an  infinite  num- 
ber of  niceties  and  exceptions,  in  choosing  a  heifer,  for  this  offer- 
ing. If  she  was  not  perfectly  red,  without  the  mixture  of  any  oth- 
•er  color;  if  she  had  but  two  haii-s  black  or  white, — she  was  reckon- 
ed  unfit  for  the  purpose. 

Why  the  law  demands  a  young  cow  rather  than  a  bullock,  (which 
was  commonly  preferred  by  the  divine  legislator,}  and  why  one 
perfectly  red,  it  is  not  easy  to  determine.  Some  pious  expositors 
consider  the  heifer  as  a  type  of  our  blessed  Redeemer:  its  unblem- 
ished perfection  represented  his  immaculate  purity  and  sinless  excel- 
lence;  its  red  color  indicated  the  relation  of  Christ  to  our  family, 
descended  from  Adam,  that  is,  a  man  formed  of  red  earth  ;  the 
shedding  of  his  own  blood  for  the  sins  of  his  people,  and  the  com- 
plete victory  which  he  has  gained  over  all  their  enemies,  whose 
blood  he  has  sprinkled  upon  his  vesture  ;  its  freedom  from  the  yoke, 


68  SCRIPTURE   NATURAL   HISTORY. 

liis  voluntary,  his  unrestrained  devoting  of  himself  to  the  work  of 
redemption.  No  doubt  can  be  reasonably  entertained,  that  the  burn- 
ing of  the  red  heifer  did  prefigure  the  sufferings  and  death  of 
Christ ;  and  the  purifying  efficacy  of  her  collected  ashes,  mixed  in 
water,  the  cleansing  energy  of  his  blood ;  for  it  is  the  blood  of 
Christ  alone  that  cleanseth  from  all  sin.  But  it  is  very  doubtful 
whether  all  these  analogies  existed. 

The  grass  of  the  field,  and  the  young  shoots,  and  leaves  of  the 
forest,  supply  the  ox  with  food,  which  he  collects  by  a  peculiar  ac- 
tion of  his  tongue,  and  devours  in  large  quantities,  with  great  rapid- 
ity. The  first  circumstance  is  mentioned  by  the  psalmist  as  an  ad- 
ditional aggravation  in  the  grovelling  idolatry  of  Israel :  '  They 
changed  their  glory  into  the  similitude  of  an  ox  that  eateth  grass*,' 
Psalm  cvi.  20.  Disregarding  the  dictates  of  reason,  which  had 
been  planted  in  their  bosoms  by  the  inspiration  of  God.  they  ex- 
changed the  glorious  manifestations  or  symbols  of  the  Divine  pre- 
sence, with  which  they  were  still  favored,  into  the  form  of  an  ox, 
which  their  Egyptian  oppressors  had  exalted  to  the  rank  of  a  god, 
and  absurdly  worshipped  ;  a  stupid  and  irrational  animal,  doomed 
by  his  Maker  to  fix  his  brute  countenance  on  the  ground,  to  which 
both  his  soul  and  body  return,  and  to  subsist  on  the  coarsest  fare. 

*  To  eat  grass  like  an  ox'  (Dan.  iv.  25),  was  a  part  of  that  signal 
punishment  which  the  Most  High  inflicted  upon  the  proud  and  ty- 
rannical king  of  Babylon,  Deprived  of  reason,  which  he  had  so 
greatly  abused,  and  resigned  to  the  full  influence  of  bestial  appetites, 
he  was  hurled  from  his  throne  and  dignity,  and  expelled  from  the 
society  of  mankind,  to  roam  naked  in  the  open  fields,  exposed,  like 
the  herd  with  which  he  associated,  to  all  the  inclemencies  of  the 
heavens,  and  forced,  like  them,  to  feed  on  grass;  a  dreadful  lesson 
to  the  oppressors  of  every  succeeding  age.  To  the  second  circum- 
stance, on  the  manner  in  which  the  ox  collects  his  food,  the  quan- 
tity which  he  devours,  and  the  rapidity  with  which  he  eats  down 
the  pasture,  the  king  of  Moab  alludes  in  his  address  to  the  elders  of 
Midian,  on  the  dangers  to  which  their  country  was  exposed  from 
the  dreaded  invasion  of  the  Israelitish  armies:  'And  Moab  said 
unto  the  elders  of  Midian,  Now  shall  this  company  lick  up  all  that 
are  round  about  us,  as  the  ox  licketh  up  the  grass  of  the  field,* 
Numbers  xxii.  4. 

Under  the  special  care  of  Oriental  husbandmen,  the  ox,  in  seasons 
of  plenty,  was  regaled  with  a  mixture  of  chaffj  chopped  straw,  and 
various  kinds  of  grain,  carefully  winnowed  and  moistened  with 
subacid  water.  Such  is  the  meaning  of  that  prediction  :  '  The  oxen 
likewise,  and  the  young  asses,  that  ear  (till)  the  ground,  shall  eat  clean 
(or  subacid)  provender,  which  hath  been  winnowed  with  the  shovel 
and  with  the  fan,'  Isaiah  xxx.  24.  When  the  Lord  returns  to  bless 
his  repenting  people,  so  rich  and  abundant  shall  be  the  produce  of 
their  fields  that  the  lower  animals  which  toil  in  the  service  of  man, 
and  have  assigned  for  their  subsistence  the  very  refuse  of  the  harvest 
shall  share  in  the  general  plenty,  and  feed  on  provender  carefully  sep- 


THE    OX.  69 

aratecTfrom  all  offensive  matters,  and  adapted  to  their  tastes.  But, 
among  the  Jews,  this  animal  fed  most  luxuriously  when  employed 
in  treading  out  the  corn ;  for  the  divine  law,  in  many  of  whose  pre- 
cepts the  benevolence  of  Deity  conspicuously  shines,  forbade  to 
muzzle  him,  and  by  consequence,  to  prevent  him  from  eating,  even 


to  satiety,  of  the  grain  which  he  was  employed  to  separate  from  the 
husk.  This  allusion  is  involved  in  the  prophet's  address  to  the 
tribes,  in  which  he  warns  them,  that  the  abundance  and  tranquillity 
which  they  had  so  long  enjoyed,  should  not  exempt  them  from  the 
punishments  due  to  their  multiplied  ;  crimes.  Despising  the  frugal 
and  laborious  life  of  their  ancestors,  they  had  become  slothful  and 
voluptuous,  like  an  ox  that  declines  to  bend  his  neck  any  longer  to 
the  yoke,  and  loves  the  easier  employment  of  treading  out  the  com,, 
where  he  riots  without  restraint  in  the  accumulated  bounties  of 
Heaven:  'Ephraim  is  a  heifer  that  is  taught  (or  has  become  nice 
and  delicate,)  and  loveth  to  tread  out  the  corn :  but  I  passed  over 
upon  her  fair  neck,'  Hos.  x.  11. 

Men  of  every  age  arid  country  have  been  much  indebted  to  the 
labors  of  this  animal ;  he  was  the  first  that  resigned  his  neck  to  the 
plough,  that  extended  the  prospects,  and  multiplied  or  enlarged  the 
comforts  of  the  rising  nations.  So  early  as  the  days  of  Job,  who 
was  probably  the  contemporary  of  Isaac,  '  the  oxen  were  ploughing, 
and  the  asses  feeding  beside  them,  when  the  Sabeans  fell  upon  them 
and  took  them  away,'  Job  i.  14,  In  times  long  posterior,  when 
Elijah  was  commissioned  to  anoint  Elisha  the  son  of  Shaphat  pro- 
phet in  his  stead,  he  found  him  ploughing  with  twelve  yoke  of  o-x~ 
en,  1  Kings  xix.  19.  For  many  ages  the  hopes  of  Oriental  husband- 
men  depended  entirely  on  their  labors ;  this  was  so  much  the  case 


70 


SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 


in  the  time  of  Solomon,  that  he  observes  in  one  of  his  proverbs 
4  Where  no  oxen  are,  the  crib  is  clean,  (or  rather  empty  ;)  but  much 
increase  is  by  the  strength  of  the  ox,'  Prov.  xiv.  4.  The  ass,  in  the 
course  of  ages,  was  compelled  to  bend  his  stubborn  neck  to  the  yoke, 
and  share  in  his  labors  ;  but  still  the  preparation  of  the  ground  in  the 
time  of  spring,  chiefly  depended  on  the  more  powerful  exertions  of 
the  latter.  This  might  be  fairly  inferred  from  the  text,  in  which  a 
preference,  as  might  be  expected,  is  given  to  the  ox :  ;  The  oxen 
likewise,  and  the  young  asses,  that  ear  (or  till)  the  ground,  shall  eat 
clean  provender.'  The  same  inference  rnay  be  drawn  from  the 
proverb  of  Solomon,  already  quoted,  in  which  he  takes  no  notice 
of  the  ass,  although  it  is  more  than  probable  he  had  been  yoked  in 
the  plough  long  before  his  reign.  The  superior  importance  of  the 
ox,  even  in  the  light  and  sandy  fields  of  Syria,  is  clearly  signified 
in  these  words  of  Arnos,  'Shall  horses  run  upon  the  rock?  Will 
one  plough  there  with  oxen  ? '  Amos  vi.  1*3. 

The  laws  of  Moses,  which  prohibited  his  people  to  join  in  the 
same  yoke  the  ox  and  the  ass ;  and  the  notice  which  the  afflicted 
patriarch  Job,  who  flourished  long  before  his  time,  gives  us  of  the 
*  oxen  ploughing,'  clearly  prove,  that  the  person  who  invented  the 


plough,  and  instructed  the  ox,  existed  very  early  in  the  history  of 
the  world.  We  rnay,  with  the  page  of  inspiration  for  our  guide, 
trace  the  invention  to  the  first  descendants  of  our  common  father, 
one  of  whom  was  a  shepherd,  and  the  other  a  cultivator  of  the  soil. 
Nor  is  the  believer  in  revelation  permitted  to  assign  the  honor  chief- 
ly to  them ;  he  is  directed  to  ascribe  it  to  the  Spirit  of  the  only  wise 
God :  '  Give  ye  ear,  and  hear  my  voice  ;  hearken,  and  hear  my 
speech.  Doth  the  ploughman  plough  all  day  to  sow?  Doth  he 
open  and  break  the  clods  of  his  ground  ?  When  he  hath  mads 


THE   OX.  .       71 

plain  the  face  thereof,  doth  he  not  cast  abroad  the  fitches,  and  scat- 
ter the  cummin  and  cast  in  the  principal  wheat,  and  the  appointed 
barley,  and  the  rye,  in  their  place?     For  his  God  doth  instruct  him 
to  discretion,'  Isaiah  xxviii.  23 — 25.      By   direct  revelation  from 
Heaven,  or  the  secret  suggestion  of  his  Spirit  to  the  mind  of  Adam, 
or  his  son  Cain,  they  were  taught  to  construct  the  plough,  and  bend 
the  pliant  neck  of  the  ox  to  the  yoke.     The  importance  of  the  les- 
son, confirmed  by  their  own  daily  experience,  they  failed  not  to  im- 
press upon  the  minds  of  their  offspring ;  and  thus,  one  generation 
transmitted  to  another  the  valuable  favor.     The  ox  was  also  com- 
pel ed  to  submit,  when  the  seed-time  was  over,  to  the  more  severe 
labor  of  dragging  the  cart  or  the  waggon.    In  the  book  of  Numbers, 
the  princes  of  Israel  brought  their  offering  before  the  Lord,  six  cov- 
ered waggons  and  twelve  oxen  ;  that  is,  six  waggons,  each  drawn 
by  two  oxen  :  and  in  the  same  chapter,  Moses  '  gave  two  waggons 
and  four  oxen  unto  the  sons  of  Gershon,  according  to  their  service ; 
and  four  waggons  and  eight  oxen  unto  the  sons  of  Merari,  accord- 
ing to  their  service  ;'  that  is,  every  waggon  drawn  by  two  oxen, 
Numbers  vii.  3,  7,  8.     The  number  of  oxen  commonly  yoked  in 
one  cart  seems  to  have  been  two  ;  for  the  priests  and  diviners,  whom 
the  lords  of  the  Philistines  consulted  about  the  captive  ark  of  Jeho- 
vah, advised  them  to  make  a  new  cart,  and  yoke  in  it  two  milch 
kine,  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  back  the  dread  symbol  of  Divine 
Majesty,  to  the  place  appointed  for  its  reception,  1  Sam.  vi.  7.   The 
new  cart,  in  which  the  king  of  Israel  and  his  people  brought  it  up 
from  the  house  of  Abinadab,  seems  also  to  have  been  drawn  by  two 
oxen,  although  the  number  is  not  so  clearly  stated,  2  Sam.  vi.  3,  G. 

The  flesh  of  the  herd  was  not  only  used  by  the  chosen  people, 
but  also  reckoned,  when  young,  one  of  their  greatest  delicacies. 
The  patriarch  Abraham,  accordingly,  with  ardent  hospitality,  en- 
tertained the  angels  under  the  oak  at  Marnre,  with  *  a  calf,  tender 
and  good,'     (Gen.  xviii.  7.) ;  and  the  pythoness  at  Endor  could 
think  of  nothing  so  delicious  and  acceptable  to  set  before  Saul,  as  a 
calf  fattened  in  treading  out  the  corn,  1  Sam.  xxviii.  24.     Nor  had 
the  father  in  the  parable  a  greater  delicacy  to  set  upon  the  festive 
board,  when  he  received  his  returning  prodigal,  than  the  fatted  calf, 
Luke  xv.  23.     The  young  of  the  herd  were  numbered  among  the 
blessings  which  Jehovah  promised  to  bestow  upon  his  ransomed 
people,  and   classed  with  the   choicest  viands :    '  Therefore,  they 
shall  come  and  sing  in  the  height  of  Zion,  and  shall  flow  together 
to  the  goodness  of  the  Lord,  for  wheat  and  for  wine,  and  for  oil, 
and  for  the  young  of  the  flock,  and  of  the  herd ;  and  their  soul 
shall  be  as  a  watered  garden,  and  they  shall  not  sorrow  any  more 
at  all,'  Jer.  xxxi.  12.     The  voluptuous  nobles  of  Israel,  in  the  day» 
of  Amos,  lay  upon  beds  of  ivory,  and  stretched  themselves  upon 
their  couches,  and  ate  the  lambs  out  of  the  flock,  *  and  the  calves 
out  of  the  midst  of  the  stall,'  Amos  vi.  4.      It  is  obviously  the  de- 
sign of  the  indignant  prophet  to  inform  us,  that  the  nobles  and 
princess  of  his  degenerate  country  indulged  without  restraint  in 


72  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 


sensual  gratification  which  luxury  could  suggest,  and  riches 
procure. 

In  times  of  primeval  simplicity,  when  mankind  in  general, 
almost  constantly  engaged  in  hazardous  pursuits,  or  toilsome  occu- 
pations, required  for  their  sustenance  a  very  large  quantity  of  solid 
and  nutritious  food,  the  full  grown  ox  himself  was  forced  to  con- 
tribute a  principal  part  of  every  public  entertainment.  When 
Adonijah  seized  the  sceptre  of  Israel,  he  slew  sheep  and  oxen,  and 
fat  cattle;  and  called  ali  his  brethren  the  king's  sons,  and  all  the 
men  of  Israel  the  king's  servants,  1  Kings  i.  9.  The  son  of  Sha- 
phat  made  a  feast  equally  substantial,  when  he  was  invested  with 
the  prophetic  office  (1  Kings  xix.  2J  .);  and  abundance  of  «  oxen 
and  sheep'  were  provided  for  the  great  and  splendid  entertainment 
at  the  coronation  of  David,  1  Chron.  xii.  40.  When  Jehoshaphat, 
the  king  of  Judah,  went  down  to  visit  Ahab,  the  king  of  Israel,  at 
Samaria,  the  latter  killed  sheep  and  oxen  for  him  in  abundance 
and  for  the  people  that  were  with  him,  2  Chron.  xviii.  2.  This 
was  the  kind  offcast  in  which  they  chiefly  delighted  ;  from  which 
they  could  be  deterred,  neither  by  the  denunciations  of  Divine 
judgment,  nor  the  terrors  of  immediate  invasion  :  '  And  in  that  day 
did  the  Lord  God  of  hosts  call  to  weeping  and  mourning,  and  to 
baldness,  and  to  girding  with  sackcloth  ;  and  behold,  joy  and  glad- 
ness, slaying  oxen  and  killing  sheep,  eating  flesh  and  drinking 
wine,'  Isa.  xxii.  12,  13.  The  same  custom  seems  to  have  continu- 
ed to  the  very  close  of  their  national  state  ;  for,  in  the  parable  of 
the  marriage  feast,  the  invitation  runs  :  '  Behold,  I  have  prepared 
my  dinner;  my  oxen  and  my  fallings  are  killed,  and  all  things  are 
ready  ;  come  unto  the  marriage,'  Matt.  xxii.  4. 

It  has  generally  been  thought  that  the  Israelites,  in  making  the 
golden  calf  which  they  worshipped  in  the  wilderness  (Exodus, 
xxxii.),  were  imitating  the  Egyptians  in  the  worship  of  Apis,  whom 
they  intended  to  represent  by  the  image  which  they  constructed  ; 
as  did  Jeroboam,  also,  in  setting  up  the  calves  at  Bethel,  1  Kings 
xii.  27  —  30.  It  must  be  confessed,  however,  that  this  opinion  is 
involved  in  considerable  difficulty,  and  several  expressions  in  the 
course  of  the  narrative  leave  much  room  to  question  whether  such 
•were  really  the  case,  in  either  instance.  It  is  hardly  credible,  that 
not  only  should  thejoeop/e,  but  JJaron,  also,  at  so  short  an  interval 
after  those  astonishing  displays  of  the  divine  majesty  and  power 
which  they  had  witnessed,  so  utterly  divest  their  minds  of  the  occur- 
rence as  this  opinion  would  seem  to  imply.  Besides,  it  should  not  be 
Jost  sight  of,  that  it  attributes  to  them  the  adoption  of  an  Egyptian 
deity,  whom,  from  past  circumstances,  if  they  could  really  believs 
in  his  existence,  they  must  have  regarded  as  a  most  implacable 
enemy.  But  what  seems  still  more  decisive  against  this  notion,  is 
the  fact,  that  after  the  calf  was  formed,  and  recognised  by  the  peo- 
ple, as  'the  gods'  who  had  'brought  them  up  out  of  the  land  of 
Egypt,'  (ver.  4),  Aaron  '  built  an  altor  before  it,  and  made  proclama- 
tion, and  said,  To-morrow  is  a  feast  to  JEHOVAH'  —  not  to  APIS. 


THE  SHEEP.  73 

And  to  this  the  people  assented,  as  is  evident  from  the  succeeding 
verses.  The  sin,  therefore,  as  it  seems,  consisted,  not  in  adopting 
the  idolatrous  worship  of  the  heathen  deity,  but  in  so  far  conform- 
ing to  it  as  to  set  up  this  symbolical  and  forbidden  representation 
of  the  true  God,  and  introducing  into  his  worship,  upon  this  occa- 
sion, some  of  the  abominations  practised  by  the  heathen,  chap, 
xxxii.  6.  In  the  case  of  Jeroboam,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind, 
that  neither  he  nor  the  people  forsook  the  worship  of  Jehovah.  He 
only  made  a  schism,  by  separating  his  people  from  their  brethren. 
The  one  worshipped  the  same  deity  seated  on  the  cherubim  at 
Jerusalem,  that  the  others  worshipped  on  the  cherubim,  or  golden 
calves,  at  Dan  and  Bethel,  though  these  ultimately  became  the 
objects  of  idolatrous  veneration.  See  2  Kings  xvii.  21.  1  KingB 
xiv.  9.  Hosea  x.  5  ;  xhi.  2,  &c. 


THE   SHEEP. 

IN  its  domestic  state,  the  sheep  is  of  all  animals  the  most  de- 
fenceless and  inoffensive.  With  its  liberty  it  seems  to  have  been 
deprived  of  its  swiftness  and  cunning ;  and  what  in  the  ass  might 
rather  be  called  patience^  in  the  sheep  appears  to  be  stupidity. 
With  no  one  quality  to  fit  it  for  self-preservation,  it  makes  vain  ef- 
forts at  all.  Without  swiftness  it  endeavors  to  fly;  and  without 
strength  sometimes  offers  to  oppose.  In  its  wild  state,  however,  it 
is  a  noble  and  active  animal,  and  is  every  way  fitted  to  defend  itself 
against  the  numerous  dangers  by  which  it  is  surrounded. 

Of  the  Syrian  sheep,  there  are  two  varieties:  the  one  called  the 
Bedouin  sheep,  which  differ  in  no  respect  from  the  larger  kinds  of 
sheep  in  Britain,  except  that  their  tails  are  something  longer  and 
thicker ;  the  others  are  those  often  mentioned  by  travellers  on  ac- 
count of  their  extraordinary  tails.  The  latter  species  is  by  far  the 
most  numerous.  The  tail  of  one  of  these  animals  is  veiy  broad 
and  large,  terminating  in  a  small  appendage,  that  turns  back  upon 
it.  It  is  of  a  substance  between  fat  and  marrow,  and  is  not  eaten 
separately,  but  mixed  with  the  lean  meat  of  many  of  the  Arab  dish- 
es; and  is  often  used  instead  of  butter.  A  common  sheep  of  this 
sort,  without  the  head,  feet,  skin,  and  entrails,  weighs  from  sixty  to 
eighty  pounds,  of  which  the  tail  itself  is  usually  fifteen  pounds  or 
upwards ;  but  such  as  are  of  the  largest  breed,  and  have  been  fat- 
tened, will  sometimes  weigh  above  one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds; 
and  the  tail,  alone,  fifty ;  a  thing  to  some  scarcely  credible.  To 
preserve  these  tails  from  being  torn,  the  Arabs  fix  a  piece  of  thin 
board  to  the  under  part,  where  they  are  not  covered  with  thick 
wool :  some  have  small  wheels  to  facilitate  the  dragging  of  this 


74  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY; 

board  after  them ;  whence,  with  a  little  exaggeration,  the  story  of 
having  carts  to  carry  their  tails. 

The  sheep  or  lamb  was  the  common  sacrifice  under  the  Mosaic 
law ;  and  it  is  to  be  remarked,  that  when  the  divine  Legislator  speaks 
of  this  victim,  he  never  omits  to  appoint,  that  the  rump  or  tail  be 
laid  whole  on  the  fire  of  the  altar.  The  reason  for  this  has  just 
been  stated.  It  was  the  most  delicate  part  of  the  animal,  and  there- 
fore the  most  proper  to  be  presented  in  sacrifice  to  Jehovah.  Mr. 
Street  considers  that  the  precept  had  additional  respect  to  the 
health  of  the  Israelites,  observing,  that  'bilious  disorders  are  very 
frequent  in  hot  countries ;  the  eating  of  fat  meat  is  a  great  encour- 
agement and  excitement  to  them ;  and  though  the  fat  of  the  tail  is 
now  considered  as  a  delicacy,  it  is  really  unwholesome.' 

In  a  domesticated  state,  the  sheep,  as  already  suggested,  is  a  weak 
and  defenceless  animal,  and  is,  therefore,  altogether  dependent  up- 
on its  keeper  for  protection  as  well  as  support.  To  this  trait  in  its 
character,  there  are  several  beautiful  allusions  in  the  sacred  writings. 
Thus,  Micah  describes  the  destitute  condition  of  the  Jews,  as  a  flock 
'  scattered  upon  the  hills,  as  sheep  that  have  not  a  shepherd,'  (1 
Kings  xxii.  17.  See  also  Matt.  ix.  36) ;  and  Zechariah  prophesied 
that  when  the  good  shepherd  should  be  smitten  and  removed  from 
his  flock,  the  sheep  should  be  scattered,  Zech.  xiii.  7.  To  the  dis- 
position of  these  animals  to  wander  from  the  fold,  and  thus  abandon 
themselves  to  danger  and  destruction,  there  are  also  several  allusions 
made  by  the  inspired  writers.  David  confesses  that  he  had  imita- 
ted their  foolish  conduct :  '  I  have  gone  astray  like  a  lost  sheep ;' 
and  conscious  that,  like  them,  he  was  only  disposed  to  wander  still 
further  from  the  fold,  he  adds, '  seek  thy  servant,'  Psalm  cxix.  176. 
Nor  was  this  disposition  to  abandon  the  paternal  care  of  God  peculiar 
to  David;  for  the  prophet  adopts  similar  language  to  depict  the  dan- 
gerous and  awful  condition  of  the  entire  species :  *  All  we  like 
sheep  have  gone  astray  ;  we  have  turned  every  one  to  his  own  way,' 
Isaiah  liii.  6.  It  was  to  seek  these  '  lost  sheep,'  scattered  abroad, 
and  having  no  shepherd,  that  the  blessed  Redeemer  came  into  the 
world.  He  is  *  the  good  shepherd,  who  gave  his  life  for  the  sheep,' 
(John  x.  II,)  and  his  people,  though  formerly  'as  sheep  going 
astray,' have  now  'returned  to  the  shepherd  and  bishop  of  their 
souls,'  1  Peter  ii.  25.  His  care  over  them,  and  their  security  under 
his  protection,  is  most  beautifully  and  affectingly  described  in  the 
chapter  which  we  just  now  cited.  '  He  calleth  his  own  sheep  by 
name,  and  leadeth  them  out.  And  when  he  putteth  forth  his  own 
sheep,  he  goeth  before  them,  and  the  sheep  follow  him ;  for  they 
know  his  voice.  And  a  stranger  will  they  not  follow^  but  will  flee 
from  him ;  for  they  know  not  the  voice  of  strangers.  I  am  the 
door  of  the  sheep.  All  that  ever  came  before  me  are  thieves  and 
robbers ;  but  the  sheep  did  not  hear  them.  I  am  the  door :  by  me 
if  any  man  enter  in,  he  shall  be  saved,  and  shall  go  in  and  out, 
and  find  pasture.  The  thief  cometh  not,  but  for  to  steal,  and 
to  kill,  and  to  destroy.  I  am  come  that  they  might  have  life, 


THE  SHEEP.  75 

and  that  they  might  have  it  more  abundantly,  I  am  the  good 
shepherd :  the  good  shepherd  giveth  his  life  for  the  sheep.  But 
he  that  is  an  hireling,  and  not  the  shepherd,  whose  own  the  sheep 
are  not,  seeth  the  wolf  coming,  and  leaveth  the  sheep  and  fleeth ; 
and  the  wolf  catcheth  them,  and  scattered!  the  sheep.  The  hire- 
ling fleeth  because  he  is  an  hireling,  and  c.ireth  not  for  the  sheep. 
I  am  the  good  shepherd,  and  know  my  sheep,  and  am  known  of 
mine.  As  the  Father  knoweth  me,  even  so  know  I  the  Father ; 
and  I  lay  down  my  life  for  the  sheep.  And  other  sheep  I  have, 
which  are  not  of  this  fold :  them  also  I  must  bring,  and  they  shall 
hear  my  voice ;  and  there  shall  be  one  fold,  and  one  shepherd,' 
John  x.  3—16. 

The  sprightly  and  playful  inclination  of  the  lamb  has  passed 
into  a  proverb.  To  their  gambols  in  the  pasture,  there  is  an  allu- 
sion in  a  bold  but  appropriate  figure,  in  the  114th  Psalm:  'The 
mountains  skipped  like  rams,  and  the  little  hills  like  lambs.  What 
ailed  ye,  ye  mountains,  that  ye  skipped  like  rarns;  and  ye  little 
hills,  like  lambs?'  The  meek  and  harmless  disposition  of  this 
animal  has  occasioned  it  to  be  selected  by  the  Holy  Spirit,  as  a  fit 
type  of  the  Son  of  God  and  Saviour  of  the  world.  The  lamb  in 
the  paschal  feast,  which  was  roasted  whole,  and  feasted  upon  by 
each  family  of  redeemed  Israelites,  and  whose  blood,  sprinkled 
upon  the  door-posts  of  their  houses,  preserved  them  from  the 
sword  of  the  destroying  angel,  was  a  lively  representation  of  him 
*  who  gave  himself  for  our  sins,  according  to  the  will  of  God  and 
our  father ; '  whose  blood  has  been  shed  for  the  expiation  of  hu- 
man guilt ;  and  upon  whom  every  redeemed  Israelite  feeds  and 
lives  by  faith,  John  vi.  51—55.  He  is  the  lamb  of  God,  who 
taketh  away  the  sin  of  the  world,  (John  i.  29),  the  necessity  and 
efficacy  of  whose  atonement  were  strikingly  prefigured  by  the  daily- 
sacrifices  of  the  Mosaic  ritual. 


76  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

THE  GOAT. 


THE  usual  scripture  name  for  this  animal,  in  a  domestic  state,  is 
a  word  which  signifies  strength  or  vigor,  and  it  seems  the  goat^is 
so  called  on  account  of  its  agility  and  vigor. 

Dr.  Russell  and  other  travellers  inform  us,  that  in  Syria  they 
have  two  kinds  of  goats ;  one  that  differs  little  from  the  common 
sort  in  Britain ;  the  other  remarkahle  for  the  length  of  its  ears, 
which  are  sometimes  upwards  of  a  foot  long,  and  broad  in  pro- 
portion. To  this  description  of  the  goat  it  is,  as  Mr.  Harrner  rea- 
sonably supposes,  that  the  prophet  Amos  refers,  in  expressing  the 
smallness  of  that  part  of  Israel  that  escaped  from  destruction,  and 
were  seated  in  foreign  countries:  'As  the  shepherd  taketh  out  of 
the  mouth  of  the  lion,  two  legs,  or  apiece  of  an  ear,  so  shall  the 
children  of  Israel  be  taken  out  that  dwell  in  Samaria,  and  in 
Damascus,'  ch.  iii.  12. 

The  goat  was  one  of  the  clean  animals  which  the  Israelites  were 
permitted  to  eat,  and  to  offer  on  the  altar,  (Exodus  xii.  5,  &c.); 
and  the  flesh  of  the  kid  is  frequently  mentioned  in  terms 
which  show  that  it  was  esteemed  as  a  great  delicacy,  Gen.  xxxviii. 
16,  17 ;  Jud.  xvi.  Solomon  promises,  as  a  reward  to  the  diligent 
husbandman,  that  he  shall  have  goafs  milk  enough  for  his  food, 
for  the  food  of  his  household,  arid  for  the  maintenance  of  his 
maidens,  (Prov.  xxvii.  27);  which  to  us  may  appear  somewhat 
strange ;  but  Russell  assures  us,  that  in  Aleppo,  these  animals  are 
chiefly  kept  for  their  milk,  of  which  they  yield  no  inconsiderable 
quantity;  that  it  is  sweet  and  well-tasted,  and  frequently  used  for 
the  making  of  cheese.  This  furnishes  one  amongst  many  install* 


THE  GOAT.  77 

ces  of  the  importance  of  historical  and  local  information  to  a  right 
understanding  of  the  sacred  writings. 

In  Lev.  xvii.  7,  we  read,  '  And  they  shall  no  more  offer  their 
sacrifices  unto  devils,  [or  hairy  ones].  The  word  here  means  the 
idolatrous  images  of  goats  worshipped  by  the  Egyptians.  It  is 
the  same  word  that  is  translated  « Satyrs,'  in  Isa.  xiii.  21 ;  where 
the  LXX  render  it  damons.  Maimonides  gives  light  to  this 
obscure  passage,  by  informing  us,  that  the  Zabian  idolaters  wor- 
shipped demons  under  the  figure  of  goats,  imagining  them  to 
appear  in  that  form;  whence  they  called  them  by  the  name  of 
Seirim—liairy  or  shaggy  ones—and  that  the  custom  being  spread 
among  other  nations,  gave  occasion  to  this  precept. 

There  is  a  precept  in  Ex.  xxiii.  19,  repeated  in  xxxiv.  26,  and 
Deut.  xiv.  21,  which  alludes,  no  doubt,  to  some  superstitious  rite, 
used  by  the  idolatrous  nations  in  honor  of  their  gods.  A  Caraite 
Jew,  quoted  by  Cudworth,  affirms,  that  it  was  customary  among 
them  to  boil  a  kid  in  the  milk  of  its  mother,  and  with  the  decoction 
besprinkle,  in  a  magical  manner,  the  fields  and  gardens,  thinking, 
by  this  means,  they  should  make  them  fructify. 

There  was  one  ceremonial  offering  of  the  goat,  under  the  Mosaic 
economy,  of  too  extraordinary  a  character  to  be  passed  by  unno- 
ticed :  we  mean  tha  scape-goat  of  the  great  day  of  atonement. 
The  ceremony  is  described  in  Lev.  xyi.    Having  received  the  two 
goats  at  the  hands  of  the  representatives  of  the  congregation,  the 
high  priest  proceeded  to  cast  lots,  for  determining  that  which 
should  be '  for  the  Lord,'  i.  e.  sacrificed  ;  and  that  which  should  be '  for 
Azazel,'  i,  e,  for  the  scape-goat.  This  being  settled,  and  the  one  mark- 
ed out  for  the  sacrifice  having  been  slain,  and  the  mercy -seat  sprink- 
led with  its  blood,  the  scape-goat  was  to  be  sent  away  into  the  wilder- 
ness ;  which  was  done  in  the  following  manner:  The  high  priest, 
and  the  stationary-men,  who  represented  the  whole  congregation 
of  the  people,  laid  their  hands  upon  its  head,  and  confessed  over  it 
all  the  iniquities  of  the  people,  and  all  their  transgressions  in  all 
their  sins,  putting  them  on  the  head  of  the  goat,  verses  20,  21.    By 
this  ceremony,  says  Witsius,  the  sinner  deprecated  the  wrath  of 
God,  and  prayed  that  it  might  fall  on  the  head  of  that  victim  which 
he  put  in  his  own  stead.    This  being  done,  it  was  delivered  to  the 
person  appointed  to  lead  it  away,  that  he  might  bear  away  all  their 
iniquities  to  a  land  of  separation,  where  they  should  be  remember- 
ed no  more,  verse  22.    It  is  observable,  that  the  two  goats  seem  to 
make  but  one  sacrifice ;  yet  only  one  of  them  was  slain.    Hence, 
they  have  been  thought  to  point  out  both  the  divine  and  human 
natures  of  the  Saviour,  and  to  typify  both  his  death  and  resurrec- 
tion.   The  goat  which  was  slain  prefigured  his  human  nature  and 
his  death;  and  the  scape-goat  pointed  out  his  resurrection :  the 
one  represented  the  atonement  made  for  the  sins  of  the  world,  as 
the  ground  of  justification ;  the  other,  Christ's  victory,  and  the 
removal  of  sin,  in  the  sanctification  of  the  soul. 
The  hair  of  the  goat  is  of  two  kinds ;  the  one,  long  and  coarse, 
7* 


78  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  tent  curtains,  sails,  and  other  fabrics 
of  the  same  kind ;  the  other  is  much  finer,  growing  under  the  for- 
mer, and  is  fabricated  into  stuffs,  which  almost  equal  silk  in  fine- 
ness. Of  the  coarse  kind  of  hair,  were  manufactured  the  curtains 
for  the  tabernacle,  (Expd.  xxvi.  7;  xxx.26.)  and  it  is  still  used  in 
the  East  as  a  covering  for  tents. 

The  tresses  of  the  bride,  in  the  Canticles,  are  compared  to  a  flock 
of  goats  from  Mount  Gilead,  (ch.  iv.)  that  is,  to  their  hair,  which 
is  generally  long  and  of  a  black  color,  or  very  brown,  such 
as  that  of  a  lovply  brunette  may  be  supposed  to  be.  The  celebrat- 
ed author  of  Theron  and  Aspasio,  however,  gives  the  allusion  a 
different  turn.  The  atniableness  of  the  church,  in  the  exemplary 
conversation  of  true  believers,  is  displayed  by  a  copious  growth  of 
hair,  which  flows  down  from  the  parted  forehead  in  decent  curls. 
Thy  hair  is  as  a  flock  of  goats  that  are  seen  afar  off,  and  appear  in 
a  pendant  attitude,  from  the  summit  of  Mount  Gilead,  most  agree- 
ably adorning  the  place,  and  detaining  the  spectator's  eye.  This 
exposition  takes  in  a  circumstance  which  corresponds  with  the 
pensile  position  of  the  hair ;  renders  the  comparison  more  full  and1 
exact ;  and  is,  according  to  the  observation  of  a  most  accurate 
judge,  one  of  the  most  remarkable  objects  in  such  a  prospect. 


THE  DOG. 


OF  all  known  quadrupeds,  the  dog  is  the  most  intelligent  and 
faithful.  Independent  of  the  beauty  of  his  form,  his  vivacity,  force, 
and  swiftness,  he  is  possessed  of  all  those  internal  qualifications 
that  can  conciliate  the  affections  of  man,  and  make  the  tyrant  a 
protector.  A  natural  share  of  courage,  and  an  angry  and  ferocious 


THE  DOG.  79 

disposition,  render  the  dog,  in  its  savage  state,  a  formidable  enemy 
to  all  other  animals  ;  but  these  readily  give  way  to  very  different 
qualities  in  the  domestic  dog,  whose  only  ambition  seems  the  de- 
sire to  please.  He  is  seen  to  come  crouching  along,  to  lay  his 
force,  his  courage,  and  all  his  useful  talents,  at  the  feet  of  his  mas- 
ter; he  waits  his  orders,  to  which  he  pays  implicit  obedience;  he 
consults  his  looks,  and  a  single  glance  is  sufficient  to  put  him  in 
motion  ;  he  is  more  faithful  even  than  the  most  boasted  among 
men ;  he  is  constant  in  his  affections,  friendly  without  interest,  and 
grateful  for  the  slightest  favors ;  much  more  mindful  of  benefits  re- 
ceived than  injuries  offered  ;  he  is  not  driven  off  by  unkindness, 
but  still  continues  humble,  submissive,  and  imploring;  his  only 
hope,  to  be  serviceable — his  only  terror,  to  displease ;  he  licks 
the  hand  that  has  been  just  lifted  to  strike  him,  and  at  last  disarms 
resentment  by  submissive  perseverance.  More  docile  than  man, 
more  obedient  than  any  other  animal,  he  is  not  only  instructed  in  a 
short  time,  but  he  also  conforms  to  the  dispositions  and  the  manners 
of  those  who  command  him.  He  takes  his  tone  from  the  house  he 
inhabits ;  like  the  rest  of  the  domestics,  he  is  disdainful  among  the 
great,  and  churlish  among  clowns.  Always  assiduous  in  serving 
his  master,  and  only  a  friend  to  his  friends,  he  is  indifferent  to  all  the 
rest,  and  declares  himself  openly  against  such  as  seem  to  be  depen- 
dent like  himself.  When  at  night,  the  guard  of  the  house  is  com- 
mitted to  his  care,  he  seems  proud  of  the  charge ;  he  continues  a 
watchful  sentinel,  he  goes  his  rounds,  scents  strangers  at  a  dis- 
tance, and  gives  them  warning  of  his  being  upon  duty.  If  they  at- 
tempt to  break  in  upon  his  territories,  he  becomes  more  fierce,  flies 
at  them,  threatens,  fights,  and  either  conquers  alone,  or  alarms 
those  who  have  most  interest  in  coming  to  his  assistance  ;  however, 
when  he  has  conquered,  he  quietly  reposes  upon  the  spoil,  and  ab-, 
stains  from  what  he  has  deterred  others  from  abusing ;  giving  thus 
at  once  a  lesson  of  courage,  temperance,  and  fidelity. 

It  may  seem  strange,  at  first  sight,  that  an  animal  possessing  so 
many  excellent  qualities  should  almost  uniformly  be  spoken  of  in 
scripture  in  such  terms  as  indicate  it  to  have  been  held  in  great  con- 
tempt among  the  Jewish  people.  But  for  this  there  may  have  been 
more  than  one  reason.  In  the  first  place,  its  vicious  dispositions 
and  habits  are  almost  as  numerous  and  important  as  the  valuable 
qualities  which  we  have  noticed.  Its  insatiable  voracity  has  be- 
come proverbial ;  and  its  wrathful  and  truculent  disposition  is  such, 
that  it  not  unfrequently  attacks  and  maims  a  stranger  without  the 
slightest  provocation.  No  animal,  says  Scaliger,  is  more  unsocial ; 
for  in  the  largest  buildings  two  of  them  can  scarcely  live  peaceably 
together ;  Mid  so  great  is  its  selfishness,  that  it  desires  to  possess 
everything  itself,  and  never  submits  to  share  its  booty  with  others 
but  by  force.  Its  shameless  impudence  is  well  known  ;  it  is  strong- 
ly alluded  to  in  2  Sam.  iii.  7,  8,  as  well  as  in  several  other  places, 
But  it  is  probable  that  the  circumstance  which  caused  the  dog  to  be 
branded  with  a  mark  of  infamy  under  the  Mosaic  law,  and  to  be 


80  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

held  in  such  contempt  by  the  Jews,  was,  that  it  formed  a  conspicu- 
ous figure  among  the  divinities  of  ancient  Egypt. 

It  is  well  known,  that  the  Turks  also  reckon  the  dog  an  unclean 
and  filthy  creature,  and  drive  him  from  their  houses.  In  Turkey, 
therefore,  dogs  are  in  common,  not  belonging  to  any  particular  own- 
ers, and  guard  rather  the  streets  and  districts  than  particular  houses. 
This,  indeed,  seems  to  be  the  common  treatment  they  meet  with  in 
the  East ;  for  even  in  Egypt  they  are  now  as  much  abhorred  as 
they  were  formerly  venerated.  An  idea  may  be  formed  in  what 
detestation  it  is  held  in  that  country,  when  it  is  seen,  that  the  most 
scurrilous  epithet  which  they  bestow  on  a  European  or  a  Christian 
is  a  dog.  Compare  1  Sam.  xvii.  43 ;  xxiv.  14 ;  2  Sam.  xvi.  9 ;  2 
Kings  viii.  13,  &c. 

To  the  prowling  of  these  deserted  and  houseless  animals  the 
Psalmist  evidently  alludes ,  in  speaking  of  his  enemies,  who  way- 
laid his  steps  and  watched  for  his  life :  l  They  return  at  the  even- 
ing ;  they  make  a  noise  like  a  dog,  and  go  round  about  the  city,' 
(Psalm  lix.  6) ;  and  viewing,  in  the  spirit  of  prophecy,  their  future 
punishment  and  destitution,  he  adds, '  And  at  evening  let  them  re- 
turn ;  and  let  them  make  a  noise  like  a  dog,  and  go-round  about 
the  city.  Let  them  wander  up  and  down  for  meat,  and  grudge  if 
they  be  not  satisfied,'  ver.  14, 15. 

In  the  sacred  writings,  the  reproachful  epithet  of  dog  is  applied 
to  the  Gentiles,  who  were  without  the  covenant  of  promise,  (Matt, 
xiv.  26) ;  to  the  despisers  of  religion,  (ch.  vii.  6) ;  to  the  worldly 
and  carnal  professors  who  had  thrust  themselves  into  the  minis- 
terial office,  (Phil.  iii.  2) ;  and  to  relentless  persecutors,  Ps.  xxii. 
16,  20. 


THE  HOG.  81 

THE     HOG. 


THE  hog,  in  its  domestic  state,  is  the  most  sordid  and  brutal  ani- 
mal in  nature.  The  awkwardness  of  its  form  seems  to  influence 
its  appetites,  and  all  its  sensations  are  as  gross  as  ils  shape  is  un- 
sightly. It  seems  possessed  only  of  an  insatiable  desire  of  eating ; 
and  seems  to  make  choice  only  of  whatever  other  animals  find  the 
most  offensive.  By  nature,  it  is  the  most  stupid,  inactive,  and  drow- 
sy ;  if  undisturbed,  it  would  sleep  half  its  time  ;  but  it  is  frequently 
awakened  by  the  calls  of  appetite,  which,  when  it  has  satisfied,  it 
goes  to  rest  again.  Its  whole  life  is  thus  a  round  of  sleep  and  glut« 
tony  ;  and  if  supplied  with  sufficient  food,  it  soon  grows  unfit  «ven 
for  its  own  existence  ;  its  flesh  becomes  a  greater  load  than  its  legs 
are  able  to  support,  and  it  continues  to  feed  lying  down  or  kneel- 
ing, a  helpless  instance  of  indulged  sensuality.  Most  of  the  dis- 
eases of  this  animal  arise  from  intemperance :  measles,  impost- 
humes,  and  scrofulous  swellings,  are  reckoned  among  the  number. 

The  flesh  of  swine  was  expressly  forbidden  to  the  Jews/  by  the 
Levitical  law  (Lev.  xi.  7,)  on  account  of  its  filthy  character,  as  some 
think,  as  well  as  because  the  flesh,  being  strong  and  difficult  to  di- 
gest, afforded  a  very  gross  kind  of  aliment,  and  was  apt  to  produce 
cutaneous,  scorbutic,  and  scrofulous  disorders,  especially  in  hot  cli- 
mates. Maimonides  says,  'The  principal  reason  wherefore  the  law 
prohibited  the  swine  was,  because  of  their  extreme  filthiness,  and 
their  eating  so  many  impurities ;  for  it  is  well  known  with  what 
care  and  precision  the  law  forbids  all  filthiness  and  dirt,  even  in  the 
fields  and  in  the  camp,  not  to  mention  the  cities.  Now,  had  swine 
been  permitted,  the  public  places,  and  streets,  and  houses,  would 
have  been  made  nuisances.' 

In  the  time  of  Isaiah,  however,  (chap,  Ixv.  4),  the  eating  of  swine's 
flesh  is  enumerated  among  the  abominations  that  had  been  adopted 
by  the  degenerate  Hebrews ;  and  their  punishment  is  denounced 


82  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

in  the  next  chapter :  « They  that  sanctify  and  purify  themselves  in 
the  gardens  behind  one  tree  in  the  midst,  eating  swine's  flesh,  and 
the  abomination,  and  the  mouse,  shall  be  consumed  together,  saith 
the  Lord,'  ch.  Ixyi.  17. 

In  Matthew  vii.  6,  we  have  an  injunction,  which,  as  it  stands  in 
the  English  version,  requires  exposition  :  '  Give  not  that  which  is 
holy  unto  the  dogs,  neither  'cast  ye  your  pearls  before  swine,  lest 
they  trample  them  under  their  feet,  and  turn  again  and  rend  you.' 
As  this  passage  is  now  read,  both  the  malignant  acts  are  most  im- 
properly referred  to  the  swine.  Dr.  A.  Clarke  has  restored  the 
proper  sense  by  transposing  the  lines,  and  bishop  Jebb,  availing 
himself  of  the  hint,  has  shown  the  passage  to  be  one  of  those  intro- 
verted parallelisms  which  abound  in  the  sacred  writings.  In  the 
corrected  form  it  reads  thus : 

Give  not  that  which  is  holy  to  the  dogs  ; 

Neither  cast  your  pearls  before  the  swine  ; 

Lest  they  trample  them  under  their  feet, 
And  turn  about  and  rend  you. 

Here  the  first  line  is  related  to  the  fourth,  and  the  second  to  the 
third  ;  and  the  sense  becomes  perfectly  clear,  on  thus  adjusting  the 
parallelism : 

Give  not  that  which  is  holy  to  the  dogs, 
Lest  they  turn  about  and  rend  you  ; 
Neither  cast  your  pearls  before  the  swine, 
Lest  they  trample  them  under  their  feet. 

The  more  dangerous  act  of  imprudence,  with  its  fatal  result,  is 
placed  first  and  last,  so  as  to  make  and  to  leave  the  deepest  practi- 
cal impression.  To  cast  pearls  before  swine,  is  to  place  the  pure 
and  elevated  morality  of  the  gospel  before  sensual  and  besotted 
wretches. 

To  give  that  which  is  holy  to  the  dogs,  is  to  produce  the  deep 
truths  of  Christianity  before  the  malignant  and  profane,  who  will 
not  fail  to  add  injury  to  neglect :  who  will  not  only  hate  the  doc- 
trine, but  persecute  the  teacher.  In  either  case,  an  indiscreet  and 
over-profluent  zeal  may  do  serious  mischief  to  the  cause  of  good- 
ness ;  but  in  the  latter  case,  the  injury  will  fall  with  heightened  se- 
verity, both  on  religion,  and  on  religion's  injudicious  friends.  The 
warning,  therefore,  against  the  dogs,  is  emphatically  placed  at  the 
commencenient  and  the  close. 


SECTION   It 
FEROCIOUS   WILD   BEASTS. 


HAVING  noticed  the  several  animals  brought  under  the  subjections 
of  man,  that  are  mentioned  in  scripture,  we  proceed  to  notice  those 
which  have  hitherto  eluded  his  efforts  for  their  subjugation,  and 
still  maintain  their  wild  and  savage  independence.  Among  these? 
beasts  of  prey  naturally  claim  the  first  place. 

THE  LION. 


THE  outward  form  of  this  noble  animal  seems  to  bespeak  his  in* 
ternal  generosity.  His  figure  is  striking,  his  look  confident  and 
bold,  his  gait  proud,  and  his  voice  terrible.  His  stature  is  not  over- 
grown, like  that  of  the  elephant,  or  rhinoceros ;  nor  is  his  shape 
clumsy,  like  that  of  the  hippopotamus,  or  the  ox.  It  is  compact, 
well  proportioned,  and  sizeable ;  a  perfect  model  of4 strength,  joined 
with  agility.  It  is  muscular  and  bold,  neither  charged  with  fat  nor 
unnecessary  flesh.  It  is  sufficient  but  to  see  him  in  order  to  be  as- 
sured of  his  superior  force.  His  large  head,  surrounded  with  a 


84  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

dreadful  mane,  all  those  muscles  that  appear  under  the  skin  swell- 
ing with  the  slightest  exertions,  and  the  great  breadth  of  his  paws, 
with  the  thickness  of  his  limbs,  plainly  evince  that  no  other  animal 
in  the  forest  is  capable  of  opposing  him.  His  face  is  very  broad, 
and  is  surrounded  with  very  long  hair,  which  gives  it  a  most  ma- 
jestic aspect.  His  huge  eyebrows ;  his  round  and  fiery  eye-balls, 
which,  upon  the  least  irritation,  seem  to  glow  with  peculiar  lustre ; 
together  with  the  formidable  appearance  of  his  teeth,  exhibit  a  pic- 
ture of  terrific  grandeur  which  it  is  impossible  to  describe.  The 
length  of  a  large  lion  is  between  eight  and  nine  feet ;  and  its  height 
about  four  feet  and  a  half.  The  top  of  the  head,  the  temples,  the 
cheeks,  the  under  jaw,  the  neck,  the  breast,  the  shoulder,  the  hind- 
er part  of  the  legs,  and  the  belly  are  furnished  with  long  hair,  whilst 
all  the  rest  of  the  body  is  covered  with  very  short  hair,  of  a  tawny 
color.  The  inane  grows  every  year  longer  as  the  animal  grows  old- 
re  ;  but  the  lioness  is  without  this  appendage  at  eveiy  age.  It  is 
usually  supposed  that  the  lion  is  not  possessed  of  the  sense  of  smell- 
ing in  such  perfection  as  most  other  animals  ;  and  it  is  also  observed, 
that  too  strong  a  light  greatly  incommodes  him  :  his  eyes,  like  those 
of  the  cat,  being  fitted  for  seeing  best  in  the  dark.  For  this  reason, 
he  seldom  appears  in  open  day,  but  ravages  chiefly  by  night.  See 
Psalm  civ.  20,  22. 

Accustomed  to  measure  his  strength  with  every  animal  he  meets, 
the  act  of  conquering  renders  the  lion  intrepid  and  terrible.  In 
those  regions  where  he  has  not  experienced  the  dangerous  arts  and 
combinations  of  man,  he  has  no  apprehensions  from  his  power. 
He  boldly  faces  him,  and  seems  to  brave  the  force  of  bis  arms. 
Wounds  rather  serve  to  provoke  his  rage  than  to  repress  his  ardor, 
nor  is  he  daunted  by  the  opposition  of  numbers ;  a  single  lion  of 
the  desert  often  attacks  an  entire  caravan,  and,  after  an  obstinate 
combat,  when  he  finds  himself  overpowered,  instead  of  flying  he 
continues  to  combat,  retreating,  and  still  facing  the  enemy  till  he 
dies.  To  this  trait  in  his  character  Job  alludes,  when  he  hastily 
said  to  the  Almighty, '  Thou  huntest  me  as  a  fierce  lion,'  ch.  x.  16. 
We  hence  see,  also,  the  propriety  with  which  Hushai  describes  the 
valiant  among  the  troops  of  Absalom,  as  possessing  the  *  heart  of  a 
lion,'  2  Sam.  xvii.  10. 

When  incited  by  hunger,  the  lion  boldly  attacks  all  animals  that 
come  in  his  way  ;  but  as  he  is  so  formidable  an  enemy,  and  as  they 
all  seek  to  avoid  him,  he  is  often  obliged  to  hide,  in  order  to  take 
them  by  surprise.  For  this  purpose  he  crouches  on  his  belly,  in  some 
thicket,  or  among  the  long  grass,  which  is  found  in  many  parts  of  the 
forest ;  and  in  this  retreat  be  continues,  with  patient  expectation,  until 
his  prey  comes  within  a  proper  distance,  when  he  springs  after  it, 
fifteen  or  twenty  feet  from  him,  and  often  seizes  it  at  the  first  bound. 
To  this  feature  in  his  character,  there  are  many  beautiful  allusions 
in  the  scriptures. — '  Wilt  thou  hunt  the  prey  for  the  lion,  or  fill  th« 
appetite  of  the  young  lions,  when  they  couch  in  their  dens,  and 
abide  in  the  covert  to  lie  in  wait?'  Job  xxxviii.  39,40.  David 


THE  LION.  &> 

|>ourtraying  the  character  of  the  oppressor  and  extortioner,  says, 
*He  littth  in  wait  secretly  as  a  lion  in  his  den:  he  lieth  in  wait  to 
catch  the  poor — he  croucheth,  and  humbleth  himself,  that  the 
poor  nmy  fall  by  his  strong  ones,'  Psalm  x.  9,  10.  How  forcibly 
does  this  language  depict  the  breathless  anxiety,  with  which  the 
wicked  wait  the  accomplishment  of  their  iniquitous  purposes  ! 

The  roaring  of  the  lion  is  said  to  be  so  loud,  that  when  it  is  heard 
in  the  night,  and  re-echoed  by  the  mountains,  it  resembles  distant 
thunder:  the  whole  race  of  animals  within  its  sound  stand  appall- 
ed, regarding  it  as  the  sure  prelude  to  destruction.  Hence  the  pro- 
phet says,  *  The  lion  has  roared,  who  will  not  fear?  The  LORD 
GOD  has  spoken,  who  can  but  prophesy  ?'  Arnos  iii.  8.  So  also 
Hosea:  'He  shall  roar  like  a  lion:  when  he  shall  roar,  then  the 
children  shall  tremble  from  the  west,'  ch.  xi.  10.  But  it  is  when 
the  lion  summons  up  all  his  terrors  for  the  combat  that  his  voice  is 
most  terrible.  Lashing  iiis  sides  with  his  long  tail,  throwing  his 
ma:ie  in  every  direction,  which  seems  to  stand  like  bristles  round 
his  head,  the  skin  and  muscles  of  his  face  all  in  agitation,  his  huge 
eye- brows  half  covering  his  glaring  eye-balls,  his  monstrous  teeth, 
his  prickly  tongue,  and  his  destructive  claws,  all  exhibited  to  view, 
he  roars  forth  his  formidable  and  terror-inspiring  cry.  This  fur- 
nishes the  sacred  writers  with  several  beautiful  images.  Jeremiah 
foretels  the  terrible  visitations  of  the  divine  anger,  in  language  de- 
rived from  this  appalling  circumstance  :  'The  Lord  shall  roar  from 
on  high,  and  utter  his  voice  from  his  holy  habitation  ;  he  shall  might- 
ily roar  upon  his  habitation,'  ch.  xxv.  30. 

Aft  r  depriving  his  victim  of  liiip,  which  he  generally  effects  by 
a  stroke  of  his  paw,  the  lion  tears  it  in  pieces,  breaks  all  its  bones, 
and  shallows  them  with  ihe  rest  of  the  body.  To  these  circum- 
stances there  are  frequent  allusions  in  the  scripture.  'Save  me 
from  all  them  that  persecute  me,  and  deliver  me,  lest  he  tear  rny 
soul  like  a  lion,  rending  it  in  pieces,  where  there  is  none  to  deliver/ 
Ps.  vii.  1,  2.  '  And  the  rennant  of  Jacob  shall  be  among  the  Gen- 
tiles in  the  midst  of  many  people,  as  a  lion  among  the  beasts  of  the 
forest,  as  a  young  lion  among  the  flocks  of  sheep;  who,  if  he  go 
through,  lunh  treadeth  down,  and  teareth  in  pieces,  and  none  can 
deliver,'  Mic.  v.  8.  Nor  is  his  voracity  left  unnoticed.  Biifioti  as- 
sures us  that  the  lion  not  only  devours  his  prey  with  the  utmost 
freediuess,  but  that  he  devours  a  great  deal  at  a  time,  and  generally 
Us  himself  for  two  or  three  days  to  corne.  Hence,  David  com- 
pares his  enemies  to  'a  lion  that  is  greedy  of  his  prey,' (Ps.  x  vii. 
l^J,)  and  JEHOVAH,  threatening  Israel  for  its  transgressions,  declares 
that  lie  will  '  devour  them  like  a  lion/  Hos.  xiii.  8.  The  prophet 
Nahuiu  describes,  with  equal  energy  and  elegance,  the  care  with 
which  the  lion  provides  for  its  mate  and  young  ones:  'Where  is 
the  dwelling  of  the  lions,  and  the  feeding-place  of  the  young  lions, 
where  the  lion,  even  the  old  lion  walked,  and  the  lion's  whelp,  and 
none  made  them  afraid  ?  The  lion  did  tear  in  pieces  enough  for 
his  whelps,  and  strangled  fur  his  lionesses,  and  filled  his  holes  with 

8 


86  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

prey,  and  his  dens  with  ravin,'  ch.  ii.  11,  12.  Buffon,  following 
Pliny,  Eustathius,  and  other  ancient  naturalists,  informs  us,  that 
while  young  and  active,  the  lion  subsists  by  hunting,  and  seldom 
quits  the  deserts  or  the  forests,  where  he  finds  plenty  of  wild  ani- 
mals ;  but  when  he  grows  old,  heavy,  and  less  fit  for  the  exercise 
of  hunting,  he  approaches  frequented  places,  and  becomes  more 
dangerous  to  man  and  the  domestic  animals.  It  has,  indeed,  been 
remarked,  that  when  he  sees  men  and  animals  together,  he  attacks 
the  latter,  and  never  the  former,  unless  any  man  strike  him  ;  for  in 
this  case  he  is  wonderfully  alert  in  distinguishing  the  person  who 
hurts  him,  and  he  instantly  quits  his  prey  to  take  vengeance  on  the 
offender. 

These  traits  in  his  character  explain  the  reason  that  God  so  often 
threatens  to  be  as  a  lion  to  his  ancient  people.  He  discerns  at 
once  who  it  is  that  transgresses  his  law,  and  is  prompt  in  taking 
vengeance  on  the  sinner.  They  also  throw  light  on  the  passage  in 
Hosea:  'For  I  will  be  unto  Ephraim  as  a  great  lion,'  that  leaves 
the  forest  and  approaches  the  habitations  of  men,  and  is  therefore 
more  to  be  dreaded  ;  'and  to  the  house  of  Jtidah  as  a  young  lion,' 
that  hunts  his  prey  in  the  desert  or  the  forest,  and  is  therefore  less 
to  be  feared,  ch.  v.  14.  How  exactly  this  corresponds  with  histori- 
cal fact,  is  well  known  to  every  careful  reader  of  the  scriptures; 
for  Ephraim,  or  the  ten  tribes,  were  driven  away  from  their  own 
land  into  a  distant  region,  where  they  were  doomed  to  suffer  a  pro- 
tracted exile;  while  Judah  continued  to  hold  his  possessions  a  hun- 
dred arid  thirty-three  years  longer,  and  when  carried  into  captivity 
at  the  end  of  that  period,  by  the  king  of  Babylon,  it  was  only  for 
the  short  term  of  seventy  years,  till  the  land  had  enjoyed  her  sab- 
baths. 

The  lion,  like  most  other  animals  of  the  cat  kind,  is  kept  off  by 
large  fires,  which  the  inhabitants  of  Africa  and  Asia,  where  he  is 
chiefly  found,  light  during  the  night  to  preserve  their  flocks  and 
herds.  But  these,  even  added  to  the  barking  of  the  dogs,  and  the 
continued  shoutings  of  the  shepherds,  are  sometimes  found  insuffi- 
cient to  deter  his  approach.  He  has  been  known  to  outbrave  all 
the  dangers  which  could  be  presented  10  him  under  such  circum- 
stances, and  boldly  leaping  into  the  midst  of  the  fold,  to  carry  off 
a  sheep  or  a  goat.  How  beautifully  does  the  prophet  allude  to  this, 
when  he  promises  the  Divine  interposition  on  behalf  of  God's  an- 
cient people  :  '  For  thus  hath  the  Lord  spoken  unto  me,  like  as  the 
lion  and  the  young  roaring  lion  on  his  prey,  when  a  multitude  of 
shepherds  is  called  forth  against  him,  he  will  not  be  afraid  of  their 
voice,  nor  abase  himself  lor  the  noi.se  of  them  :  so  shall  the  Lord  of 
hosts  come  down  to  fight  for  moutit  Zion,  and  for  the  hill  thereof,' 
Isaiah  xxxi.  4. 

The  lion  is  made  the  symbol  of  our  exalted  Redeemer.  He  was 
a  lamb  in  his  sufferings  and  death,  but  he  became  '  the  lion  of  the 
tribe  of  Judah,'  when  .lie  burst  asunder  the  hands  of  death,  forced 
open  the  gpjve's  devouring  mouth,  and  returned  to  his  father  a 


THE  LION.  87 

triumphant  conqueror  over  all  the  powers  of  darkness.  He  is  cloth- 
ed with  glorious  majesty,  and  girt  about  with  invincible  might.  No 
enemy  can  disturb  the  tranquillity  of  his  fearless  heart,  nor  interrupt 
the  progress  of  his  operations;  no  movement  of  providence,  but  he 
is  qualified  to  guide;  no  work  of  judgment  or  mercy,  but  he  is  able 
to  perform.  *  He  speaks,  and  it  is  done ;  he  commands,  and  it  stands 
fast — none  can  stay  his  hand,  or  say  unto  him,  What  dost  thou  ?'  In 
the  rapid  diffusion  of  the  gospel  and  the  conversion  of  many  nations 
to  the  Christian  faith,  which  commenced  in  a  few  days  after  his  as- 
cension, were  fulfilled  the  words  of  Joel :  'The  Lord  also  shall  roar 
out  of  Zion,  and  utter  his  voice  from  Jerusalem  ;  and  the  heavens 
and  the  earth  shall  shake,  and  the  Lord  will  be  the  hope  of  his  peo- 
ple, and  the  strength  of  the  children  of  Israel,'  Joel  iii.  16.  Nor  is 
the  preaching  of  the  gospel  improperly  compared  to  the  roaring  of 
a  lion,  for  it  has  been  heard  in  every  part  of  the  world,  and  has  not 
only  struck  the  ear,  but  by  its  energy  has  opened  a  way  for  itself 
into  the  heart,  and  produced  a  concern  about  salvation  which  nei- 
ther length  of  time  nor  change  of  circumstances  could  subdue. 

The  lion  symbolizes  also  the  strength,  generosity,  and  terrible 
presence  of  an  angel;  for,  in  the  prophecies  of  Ezekiel,  the  living 
creatures,  or  cherubim,  the  ministers  of  divine  providence,  had  each 
of  them  four  faces;  the  face  of  a  man,  and  the  face  of  a  lion,  on. 
the  right  side  ;  and  the  face  of  an  ox  and  the  face  of  an  eagle,  on 
the  left  side,  Ezekiel  i.  10.  The  apostle  John  was  favored  with  a 
vision  of  the  same  kind  in  Patrnos :  *  In  the  midst  of  the  throne,  and 
round  about  the  throne,  were  four  living  creatures  full  of  eyes  be- 
fore and  behind.  And  the  first  living  creature  was  like  a  lion,  and 
the  second  like  a  calf,  and  the  third  had  a  face  as  a  man,  and  the 
fourth  was  like  a  flying  eagle.'  In  both  visions,  the  terrible  majesty 
of  God,  in  the  ministration  of  angels  toward  the  enemies  of  his  glory, 
is  symbolized  by  the  lion  ;  their  constancy,  patience,  firmness,  and 
assiduity  in  performing  the  commands  of  their  Maker,  by  the  ox' 
their  humanity,  gentleness,  and  philanthropy,  by  the  face  of  a  man; 
and  by  the  face  of  an  eagle,  the  vigor,  the  agility,  and  the  sublime 
tendencies  of  their  celestial  nature.  Every  one  of  them  exhibits  a 
high  degree  of  excellence ;  the  lion  holds  the  first  place  among 
wild  beasts,  the  eagle  among  the  birds,  an  ox  among  the  cattle,  and 
all  submit  to  the  supreme  authority  of  man.  Of  these,  observes 
Bochart,  two  are  wild,  the  lion  and  the  eagle  ;  two  are  tame,  man 
and  the  ox:  those  to  strike  terror  into  rebels;  these  to  impart  con- 
solation to  the  pious.  The  lion  pursues  his  prey  upon  the  earth,  the 
eagle  among  the  clouds  of  heaven  ;  to  show  that  these  angelic  min- 
isters of  providence  equally  control  the  proceedings  of  men  that 
crawl  upon  the  ground,  and  the  more  powerful  and  rapid  move- 
ments of  apostate  spirits  in  the  regions  of  the  air. 

The  strength  and  power  of  the  Jewish  nation  are  often  described 
in  the  sacred  volume  by  the  same  symbol.  *  Behold,'  cried  Balaam, 
when  from  the  top  of  Pisgah  he  looked  down  on  the  innumerable 
tents  of  Israel,  *  the  people  shall  rise  up  as  a  great  lion,  and  lift  up 


88  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

himself  as  a  young  lion;  he  shall  not  lie  down  until  he  eat  of  the 
prey,  and  drink  the  blood  of  the  slain.*  This  prediction  received 
its  accomplishment  in  the  signal  victories  which  the  armies  of  Israel, 
under  the  conduct  of  Joshua,  obtained  over  the  live  nations  of 
Canaan.  They  did  not  rest,  till,  completely  victorious,  they  had 
reduced  the  whole  country  to  their  obedience.  The  forces  of  Joshua 
did  not,  like  some  uncivilized  hordes  in  modern  times,  literally  'eat 
of  the  prey  and  drink  the  blood  of  the  slain,'  for  such  inhuman 
conduct  was  equally  opposed  to  the  character  of  their  God,  and  the 
whole  tenor  of  their  law.  The  clause  is  merely  a  continuation  of 
the  metaphor,  and  a  hyperbolical  description  of  the  complete  con- 
quest, which,  by  the  favor  of  God,  awaited  their  arms.  Such  hyper- 
bolical expressions  are  frequent  in  the  sacred  volume ;  and  when 
viewed  in  the  light  of  other  scriptures,  admit  of  a  sense  equally 
consistent  and  profitable.  Thus,  In  the  reproof  which  the  Psalmist 
addresses  to  the  wicked  judges,  he  declares,  '  the  righteous  shall 
wash  his  feet  in  the  blood  of  the  wicked,'  (Psalm  Iviii.  11) :  and  in 
his  prayer  at  the  removing  of  the  ark :  *  The  Lord  said,  I  will  bring 
again  from  Bashan,  I  will  bring  my  people  again  from  the  depths 
of  the  sea:  that  thy  foot  may  be  dipped  in  the  blood  of  thine  ene- 
mies, and  the  tongue  of  thy  dogs  in  the  same,'  Psalm  Ixviii.  4. 
These  phrases  only  denote  that  the  victory  which  was  to  crown 
their  exertions,  should  be  completely  decisive.  Balaam  adds,  in  the 
same  prophecy,  '  Ho  crouched,  he  lay  down  as  a  lion,  and  as  a  great 
lion  ;  who  shall  stir  him  up  ?  '  He  was,  in  future  times,  to  subdue 
the  land  of  Canaan  so  completely,  that  no  enemy  should  presume 
to  disturb  his  repose  ;  which  was  accomplished  in  the  reign  of  Da- 
vid and  of  Solomon  his  son,  when,  by  the  heroic  valor  of  the  for- 
mer, and  the  unparalelled  wisdom  of  the  latter,  the  whole  East  was 
awed  and  charmed  into  peace  and  amity. 

The  symbols  that  represented  the  Jewish  people  were  often  ap- 
plied to  particular  tribes,  of  which  a  striking  instance  occurs  in  the 
farewell  benediction  of  Jacob:  '  Judah  is  a  lion's  whelp:  from  the 
prey,  my  son,  thou  art  gone  up ;  he  stooped  down,  he  crouched  as 
a  lion,  and  as  an  old  lion  ;  who  shall  rouse  him  up? '  Genesis  Ixix. 
9.  And  of  Gad,  Moses  said,  'Blessed  be  he  that  enlargeth  Gad:  he 
dwelleth  as  a  lion,  and  teareth  the  arm  with  the  crown  of  the  head,' 
Dent,  xxxiii.  20,  22. 

But  the  sacred  writers  often  allude  to  the  savage  disposition  of 
the  lion  5  and  in  nil  these  instances  the  name  is  used  in  a  bad  sense. 
Thus,  the  great  adversary  of  mankind  is  compared  to  a  roaring  lion, 
that  walketh  about,  seeking  whom  he  may  devour,  1  Peter  v.  8. 
Furious  and  cruel  as  the  lion  when,  within  a  single  leap  of  his  prey, 
he  thirsts  for  the  destruction  of  poor  mortals,  as  intensely  as  that 
famished  destroyer  for  the  blood  of  the  slain,  and  exerts  still  great- 
er and  more  unwearied  activity  to  accomplish  his  purpose.  The 
name  which  is  imposed  upon  the  arch-fiend,  is,  with  much  propri- 
ety, assigned  to  the  wicked,  the  victims  and  instruments  of  his  cru- 
«lty  and  injustice.  *  The  roaring  of  the  lion,  and  the  voice  of  tho 


THE  LION.  89 

fierce  lion,  and  the  teeth  of  the  young  lions  are  broken.'  That  the 
wicked  are  intended  in  this  passage,  is  evident  from  the  context: 
'  Even  as  I  have  seen,  they  that  plough  iniquity  and  sow  wicked- 
ness, reap  the  same.  By  the  blast  of  God  they  perish,  and  by  the 
breath  of  his  nostrils  are  they  consumed,'  Job  iv.  8,  9,  10.  These 
are  only  a  few  of  the  numerous  instances  in  which  the  sacred  wri- 
ters use  the  name  to  express  the  temper  and  conduct  of  wicked 
men.  Not  only  the  vicious  and  profane,  the  cruel  and  the  unjust, 
in  the  private  walks  of  life,  but  also  the  sceptred  oppressor,  the 
blood-stained  conqueror,  the  warlike  nation,  are  stigmatized  in  the 
holy  scriptures,  and  held  up  to  the  execration  of  all  mankind,  under 
this  odious  name :  *  Their  roaring  shall  be  like  a  lion  ;  they  shall 
roar  like  young  lions :  yea,  they  shall  roar  and  lay  hold  of  the  prey, 
and  shall  carry  it  away  safe,  arid  none  shall  deliver  it,'  Isaiah  v.  29. 
But  the  name  is  not  confined  to  the  human  character;  it  is  extended 
also  to  everything  hurtful  or  destructive  to  mankind.  The  sword, 
for  example,  is,  by  the  prophet,  compared  to  the  lion  on  account  of 
the  desolations  which  it  is  the  means  of  accomplishing :  '  Your 
own  sword  hath  devoured  your  prophets  like  a  destroying  lion,* 
Jer.  ii.  30.  If  these  statements  have  not  removed  any  of  the  diffi- 
culties which  the  biblical  reader  meets  with  in  his  progress,  they 
prove  beyond  a  doubt  the  closeness  and  accuracy  with  which  the 
sacred  writers  copy  nature,  and  the  admirable  fitness  and  propriety 
of  their  allusions ;  and  this  is  no  insignificant  service  to  the  interest* 
of  religion. 


8* 


SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 


THE    LEOPARD. 


THE  Hebrew  name  (Nimrali)  of  this  animal  is  taken  from  its 
spotted  color.  By  the  English  it  is  almost  indiscriminately  called 
the  Panther,  or  Leopard  of  Senegal,  where  it  is  chiefly  found.  Its 
length  is  about  four  feet  from  the  nose  to  the  origin  of  the  tail, 
which  is  about  two  feet  long.  The  predominant  color  is  yellow- 
ish, and  the  spots  with  which  it  is  covered  are  black.  The  head  is 
of  a  moderate  length,  the  ears  are  pointed,  the  eyes  are  of  u  pale 
yellow,  and  its  whole  aspect  is  fierce  and  cruel.  Its  disposition  is 
said  nearly  to  resemble  that  of  the  tiger,  yet  it  is  generally  con- 
eidered^o  be  the  less  fierce  of  the  two.  The  manner  in  which  the 
leopard'  seizes  its  prey  is,  however,  similar  to  that  of  the  lion  ; 
rushing  from  its  concealment,  it  at  once  bounces  on  its  victim,  with 
a  horrid  roar.  Its  voice,  at  this  time,  is  said  to  be  hideous  beyond 
conception. 

The  scripture  references  to  this  animal  are  not  numerous,  but 
like  all  its  other  references  they  are  founded  on  the  strictest  pro- 
priety. Jeremiah  refers  in  one  place  to  its  spotted  skin,  (ch.  xii.  23), 
and  in  another  (ch.  v.  6,)  to  its  artful  ambuscades ;  a  feature  in  its 
character  to  which  Hosea  also  alludes,  (ch.  xiii.  7) ;  « as  a  leopard 
by  the  way  will  I  observe  them' — doubtless,  to  punish  them  for 
their  flagrant  and  unrcpented  crimes.  Habakkuk,  describing  the 
rapid  march  of  the  Chaldeans  upon  Jerusalem,  compares  the 
movement  of  their  horses  to  the  extraordinary  swiftness  of  this 
animal:  *  Their  horses  also  are  swifter  than  leopards,'  ch.  i.  8. 
But  the  most  beautiful  allusion  to  this  creature  is  in  Isaiah's 
prophecy  of  the  happy  times  of  the  Messiah's  reign: — 


THE  WOLF.  91 

The  wolf  also  shall  dwell  with  the  lamb, 

And  the  leopard  slmll  lio  down  with  the  kid  ; 

And  the  calf,  and  the  young  linn,  and  the  falling  together  ; 

And  a  little  child  shall  load  them. 

How  great  and  extraordinary  must  such  a  change  appear,  when 
it  is  recollected  that  the  leopard  never  can  be  satiated  with  prey, 
and  that  man  has  never4yet  subdued  the  ferocity  of  his  natural 
disposition ! 

It  seems  that  these  animals  were  numerous  in  Palestine,  as  there 
are  places  whtah  bear  names  indicative  of  having  been  their  haunts* 
In  the  tribe  of  Gad  there  was  a  town  named  Beth-Nimrah — leo- 
pard's house,  (Numb,  xxxii,  30  ;  compare  verse  3) ;  Isaiah  and  Jer- 
emiah speak  of  the  '  waters  of  Nimrim,'  i.  e.  of  the  leopards — not 
far  distant,  (Isa.  xv.  6;  Jer.  xlviii.  ,'J4);  and  Solomon  strongly  in- 
timates that  they  were  numerous  on  the  mountains  of  Lebanon, 
Cant.  iv.  8. 


THE    WOLF. 

THIS  animal  is  something  larger  than  the  English  breed  of  mastiffs, 
being  in  length,  from  the  tip  of  his  nose  to  the  insertion  of  his  tail, 
about  three  feet  seven  inches  long,  and  about  two  feet  five  inches  high. 
He  appears,  in  every  respect,  stronger  than  the  dog ;  and  the  length  of 
his  hair  contributes  still  more  to  his  robust  appearance.  The  color 
of  his  eye-balls  is  of  a  fiery  green,  which  gives  his  visage  a  fierce  and 
formidable  air.  Externally  and  internally  the  wolf  so  much  resem- 
bles the  dog,  that  naturalists  formerly  considered  them  to  be  the 
same  animal.  But,  singular  as  it  may  appear,  there  exists  between 
them  the  most  perfect  and  uncompromising  antipathy. 

The  wolf  is  one  of  those  animals  whose  appetite  for  animal  food 
is  the  most  vehement,  and  whose  means  of  satisfy  ing  this  appetite  are 
the  most  various.  Nature  has  furnished  him  with  strength,  cunning, 
agility,  and  all  those  requisites  which  fit  an  animal  for  pursuing, 
overtaking,  and  conquering  its  prey ;  and  yet,  with  all  these,  it 
most  frequently  dies  of  hunger,  for  it  is  the  declared  enemy  of  man. 
He  is  naturally  dull  and  cowardly  ;  but  being  frequently  disappoint- 
ed, and  as  often  reduced  to  the  verge  of  famine,  he  becomes  inge- 
nious from  want,  and  courageous  from  necessity.  When  pursued 
with  hunger,  he  braves  danger,  and  comes  to  attack  those  animals 
which  are  under  the  protection  of  man ;  particularly  such  as  he 
can  readily  carry  away.  When  this  excursion  has  succeeded,  he 
often  returns  to  the  charge,  until,  having  been  wounded,  or  hard 
pressed  by  the  dogs  or  the  shepherds,  he  hides  himself  by  day  in 
the  thickest  coverts,  and  only  ventures  out  at  night.  He  then 
sallies  forth  over  the  country,  keeps  peering  round  the  villages, 
carries  off  such  animals  as  are  not  under  protection,  attacks  the 


92  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

sheep-folds,  scratches  up  and  undermines  the  thresholds  of  doors 
where  they  are  housed,  enters  furiously,  and  destroys  all  hefore  he 
begins  to  fix  upon  and  carry  off  his  prey.  When  these  sallies  do 
not  succeed,  he  returns  to  the  thickest  part  of  the  forest,  content  co 
pursue  those  smaller  animals  which,  even  when  taken,  afford  him 
but  a  scanty  supply.  He  there  goes  regularly  to  work,  follows  by 
the  scent,  opens  to  the  view,  still  keeps  following,  hopeless  him- 
self of  overtaking  the  prey,  but  expecting  that  some  other  wolf  will 
come  in  to  his  assistance,  and  is  content  to  share  the  spoil.  At  last, 
when  his  necessities  are  very  urgent,  he  boldly  faces  certain  de- 
struction ;  he  attacks  women  and  children,  and  sometimes  ventures 
even  to  fall  upon  men,  becomes  furious  by  his  continual  agitations, 
and  ends  his  life  in  madness. 

The  scripture  account  of  this  animal  corresponds  precisely  with 
the  description  furnished  by  naturalists.  His  ignoble  and  rapacious 
disposition  is  alluded  to  in  the  patriarch's  character  of  the  tribe  of 
Benjamin  :  'Benjamin  is  a  ravening  wolf:  in  the  morning  he  shall 
devour  the  prey,  and  in  the  evening  he  shall  divide  the  spoil,* 
Genesis  xlix.  27.  The  whole  history  of  the  tribe  shows  the  pro- 
priety of  this  application.  Possessing  some  courage,  and  much 
ferocity,  they  were  often  embroiled  in  quarrels  and  petty  warfare 
with  the  neighboring  tribes;  and  feelings  of  desperation,  under  cir- 
cumstances which  their  own  conduct  had  created,  sometimes  im- 
Selled  them  to  attempt  and  effect  feats  of  extraordinary  valor.  See 
udges  xix.  20. 

The  iniquitous  and  rapacious  conduct  of  the  rulers  of  Israel,  in 
the  times  of  Ezekiel  and  Zephaniah,  is  most  expressively  described 
by  a  reference  to  this  animal.  *  Her  princes  in  the  midst  thereof,' 
says  the  former  prophet,  'are  like  wolves  ravening  the  prey,  to  shed 
blood,  and  to  destroy  souls,  to  get  dishonest  gain,'  ch.  xxii.  27. 
The  latter  prophet  adds  another  circumstance,  which  materially 
illustrates  the  character  of  the  wolf:  « Her  princes  within  her  are 
roaring  lions,  her  judges  are  evening  wolves;  they  gnaw  not  the 
bones  till  the  morrow,'  ch.  iii.  3.  That  is,  *  Instead  of  protecting 
the  innocent,  and  restraining  the  evil  doer,  or  punishing  him  ac- 
cording to  the  demerit  of  his  crimes,  they  delight  in  violence  and 
oppression,  in  blood  and  rapine  ;  and  so  insatiable  is  their  cupidity, 
that,  like  the  evening  wolf,  they  destroy  more  than  they  are  able 
to  possess:  l  they  gnaw  not  the  bones  till  the  morrow ;'  or, so  much 
do  they  delight  in  carnage,  that  they  reserve  the  bones  till  next  day, 
for  a  sweet  repast.' 

To  its  nocturnal  wanderings  and  attacks,  when  it  is  more  than 
ordinarily  fierce  and  sanguinary,  Jeremiah  alludes,  in  his  threaten- 
ings  against  the  ungodly  members  of  the  Jewish  Church:  l  Where- 
fore a  wolf  of  the  evenings  shall  spoil  them,'  (ch.  v.  6}j  as  does 
also  Habakkuk,  in  his  terrible  description  of  the  Chaldean  invasion : 
*  Their  horses  also  are  swifter  than  the  leopards,  and  are  more  fierce 
than  the  evening  wolves,'  ch.  i.  8. 
The  morose  and  unsociable  traits  in  the  character  of  the  wolf, 


THE  HYAENA. 


93 


will  help  us  to  form  some  conception  of  the  mighty  change  which 
the  doctrines  of  the  gospel  must  effect  in  the  character  and  disposi- 
tions of  men,  to  justify  the  figurative  and  heautiftd  language  of  the 
evangelical  prophet:  'The  wolf  also  shall  dwell  with  the  larnb,' 
(Isa.  xi.  G) ;  and  an  attachment  will  be  formed  betwoen  them,  for 
'they  shall  eat  together,'  ch.  Ixv.  25.  See  also  Mait.  x.  10  ;  Luke 
x.  3;  John  x.  12. 

From  what  has  been  said,  the  reader  may  form  an  opinion  of  the 
character  of  those  false  teachers,  whose  object  was  to  'make  a  gain 
of  godliness,'  in  the  primitive  church,  and  whom  the  blessed  Re- 
deemer, as  well  as  his  inspired  apostles,  designates  wolves.  'Be- 
ware of  false  prophets,  which  come  to  you  in  sheep's  clothing,  but 
inwardly  are  ravening  wolves,'  Matt.  vii.  15.  'I  know,'  says  Paul 
to  the  elders  of  the  Ephesian  church,  'I  know  that  after  my  de- 
parture shall  grievous  wolves  enter  in  among  you,  not  sparing  the 
flock,'  Acts  xx.  29. 


THE    HY^NA 


IN  the  English  Bible,  we  rrad  in  1  Sam.  xiii.  13,  of  the  valley  of 
Zeboim — and  in  Jer.  xii.  9,  of 'a  speckled  bird.'  In  both  these  pla- 
ces the  same  word  is  used,  and  that  word,  there  is  little  doubt,  refers 
to  the  hyiena. 

The  size  of  the  hyrena  is  that  of  a  very  large  dog,  weighing  about 
a  hundred  weight,  Imving  a  strong  bristly  mane,  with  hairs  seven 
inches  long.  The  fore  legs  are  two  feet  in  length,  the  foot  flat, 


94  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

nnd  about  two  inches  broad.  The  animal  stands  seemingly  uneasy 
on  the  hind  legs ;  and  it  is  observable,  that,  when  it  is  at  first  dis- 
lodged from  cover,  it  limps  so  very  awkwardly,  that  it  appears  as  if 
the  hinder  legs  were  broken  or  dislocated.  By  running  some  time, 
however,  this  stiffness  leaves  it,  and  it  sweeps  along  with  great 
swiftness.  Its  color  is  of  a  yellowish  brown,  marked  with  bands 
of  different  colors,  over  its  neck  and  legs.  His  manner  of  holding 
the  head  is  remarkable;  somewhat  like  a  dog,  pursuing  the  scent 
with  his  nose  near  to  the  ground.  But  no  words  can  give  an  ade- 
quate idea  of  the  animal's  figure,  deformity,  and  fierceness.  More 
savage  and  untameable  than  any  other  quadruped,  it  seems  to  be 
forever  in  a  state  of  rage  and  'rapacity,  forever  growling,  except 
when  receiving  its  food.  Its  eyes  then  glisten,  the  bristles  of  its 
back  all  stand  upright,  its  head  hangs  low,  and  yet  its  teeth  appear; 
all  which  give  it  a  most  frightful  aspect,  which  a  dreadful  howl 
tends  to  heighten.  As  this  is  loud  and  frequent,  it  might,  perhaps, 
have  been  sometimes  mistaken  for  that  of  a  human  voice,  in  dis- 
tress, and  have  given  rise  to  the  accounts  of  the  ancients,  who  tell 
us,  that  the  hyaena  makes  its  moan,  to  attract  unwary  travellers, 
and  then  to  destroy  them ;  however  this  be,  it  seems  the  most  un- 
tractable,  and,  for  its  size,  the  most  terrible  of  all  other  quadrupeds; 
nor  does  its  courage  fall  short  of  its  ferocity;  it  defends  itself  against 
the  lion,  is  a  match  for  the  panther,  attacks  the  ounce,  and  seldom 
fails  to  conquer.  It  is  an  obscure  and  solitary  animal,  to  be  found 
chiefly  in  the  most  desolate  and  uncultivated  parts  of  the  torrid 
zone,  of  which  it  is  a  native. 

The  lion  regards  the  face  of  man  with  respect,  and,  when  not 
oppressed  by  the  force  of  hunger,  venerates  that  majesty  impressed 
by  the  Creator  on  the  human  form  ;  but  this  villain  of  the  desert 
pays  no  kind  of  respect  to  venerable  age,  or  to  the  captivating 
charim  of  beauty.  All  fall  indiscriminately  before  his  voracious 
rapacity  ;  and  what  is  still  more  extraordinary,  the  dead  of  his  own 
species  are  not  exempt  from  the  cravings  of  his  ferocious  appetite. 
Abyssinia,  and  chiefly  about  the  sources  of  the  Nile,  are  the  prin- 
ciple scenes  of  his  murders  and  devastations.  In  Atbara,  the 
Arabs  plough,  sow,  dig  wells,  have  plenty  of  water,  and  the  land 
yields  large  crops.  But  when  discord  arises  among  the  tribes,  they 
commence  hostilities  by  mutually  burning  down  the  crops,  when 
nigh  ripe,  and  rendering  a  country,  naturally  fertile,  one  uniform 
scene  of  desolation  and  misery.  Famine  ensues,  for  they  have  no 
stores  left ;  the  houses  are  burnt  down,  their  wells  filled  up,  the 
men  slain  by  the  victorious  party  are  left  upon  the  fields,  and  the 
remainder,  destitute,  forlorn,  without  strength  or  hope,  are  assailed 
by  troops  of  hysenas,  who  find  little  or  no  difference  of  resistance 
between  slaying  the  living  and  devouring  the  dead.  Thus  the  mis- 
erable multitude  are  destroyed,  till  they  leave  not  a  single  survivor 
to  announce  to  some  neighboring  nation  the  fatal  catastrophe  that 
has  befallen  their  country.  The  inhuman  natives  burying  neither 
friend  nor  foe,  the  innumerable  carcasses  of  the  slain  afford  ample 


THE  FOX,  OR  JACKAL. 


95 


supply  of  human  carrion  to  the  ravenous  hysenas.  '  In  my  return, 
through  the  desert,'  says  Mr.  Bruce,  *  the  whole  country  was  strew- 
ed with  the  hones  of  the  dead.  Horrid  monuments  of  the  victories 
of  this  savage  animal,  and  of  mnn  more  cruel  than  he  !' 

One  circumstance  is  very  remarkable  in  the  nature  of  this  animal, 
and  that  is,  his  mortal  aversion  to  dogs.  No  dog,  however  fierce, 
can  be  prevailed  upon  to  engage  the  hyasna.  This  aversion  and 
mutual  antipathy  was  proverbial  in  very  ancient  times,  for  the  au- 
thor of  Ecclesiasticus  asks, '  What  agreement  is  there  between  the 
hyaena  and  the  dog  ? '  Chap.  xiii.  18. 


THE   FOX,  OR  JACKAL. 


IT  is  somewhat  doubtful,  whether  the  fox  of  scripture  be  the 
common  fox,  or  the  jackal — the  little  eastern  fox,  as  Hasselquist 
calls  him. 

The  jackal,  or  Thaleb,  as  it  is  called  in  Arabia  and  Egypt,  is 
said  to  be  of  the  size  of  a  middling  dog,  resembling  the  fox  in  the 
hinder  parts,  particularly  the  tail ;  and  the  wolf  in  the  fore  parts, 
especially  the  nose.  Its  legs  are  shorter  than  those  of  the  fox,  and 
its  color  is  of  a  bright  yellow  ;  or  in  the  warmest  climates  rather  of 
a  reddish  brown. 

Although  this  species  of  the  wolf  approaches  very  near  to  that  of 
the  dog,  yet  the  jackal  seems  to  be  placed  between  them  ;  to  the 
savage  fierceness  of  the  wolf,  it  adds  the  impudent  familiarity  of 
the  dog.  Its  cry  is  a  howl,  mixed  with  barking,  and  a  lamentation 
resembling  that  of  human  distress.  It  is  more  noisy  in  its  pursuits 


96  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

even  than  the  dog,  and  more  voracious  than  the  wolf;  though  it 
never  goes  alone,  but  always  in  a  pack  of  forty  or  fifty  together. 
They  are  very  little  afraid  of  mankind,  but  pursue  their  game  to  the 
very  doors,  without  testifying  either  attachment  or  apprehension. 
They  enter  insolently  into  the  sheep-folds,  the  yards,  and  the 
stables,  and,  when  they  can  find  nothing  else,  devour  the  leather 
harness,  boots,  and  shoes,  and  run  off  with  what  they  have  not 
time  to  swallow.  They  not  only  attack  the  living,  but  the  dead ; 
scratching  up  with  their  feet  the  new-made  graves,  and  devouring 
the  corpse.  They  always  assist  each  other  as  well  in  this  employ- 
ment of  exhumation,  as  in  that  of  the  chase ;  and  while  at  their 
dreary  work,  exhort  each  other  by  a  most  mournful  cry,  resembling 
that  of  children  under  chastisement.  Like  all  other  savage  animals, 
when  they  have  once  tasted  human  flesh,  they  can  never  after  re- 
frain from  pursuing  mankind.  They  watch  the  burying  grounds, 
follow  armies,  and  keep  in  the  rear  of  caravans. 

Jackals  seldom  appear  abroad  till  night-fall.  Having  scented 
the  prey,  they  sally  iorth  in  troops  of  thirty  or  forty  in  number,  and 
pursue  it  the  whole  night  with  unceasing  assiduity,  keeping  up  a 
horrid  howl,  and,  with  great  perseverance,  at  last  drive  down  their 
victim.  The  lion,  the  tiger,  and  the  panther,  whose  appetites  are 
superior  to  their  swiftness,  attend  to  the  jackal's  cry,  and  just  at  the 
moment  it  supposes  itself  going  to  share  the  fruits  of  its  labor,  one 
of  these  animals  comes  in,  satiates  himself  upon  the  spoil,  and 
his  poor  provider  must  be  content  with  the  bare  carcass  he  leaves 
behind*  From  eastern  travellers  we  l.;arn,  that  the  jackal  feeds  upon 
roots  and  fruit,  as  well  as  upon  animal  flesh,  and  that  it  frequently 
roots  up  plants  to  satisfy  its  appetite. 

Such  is  the  character  which  naturalists  have  furnished  of  the 
jackal,  or  Egyptian  fox  :  let  MS  see  what  references  are  made  to  it 
in  scripture.  To  its  carnivorous  habits  there  is  an  allusion  in 
Psalm  Ixiii.  9,  10 :  *  Those  that  seek  my  soul,  to  destroy  it,  shall  go 
into  the  lower  parts  of  the  earth  :  they  shall  fall  by  the  sword ;  they 
shall  be  a  portion  for  foxes;'  arid  to  its  ravages  in  the  vineyard, 
Solomon  alludes  in  Cant.  ii.  15:  'Take  us  the  foxes,  the  little  foxes, 
that  spoil  the  vines:  tor  our  vines  have  tender  grapes.'  The  mean- 
ing is,  that  false  teachers  corrupt  the  purity  of  doctrine,  obscure  the 
simplicity  of  worship,  overturn  the  beauty  of  appointed  order, 
break  the  unity  of  believers,  and  extinguish  the  liie  and  vigor  of 
Christian  practice.  These  words  of  Ezekiel  may  he  understood  in 
the  same  sense :  *  O  Jerusalem  !  thy  prophets,  (or.  as  the  context 
gires  the  sense,)  thy  flattering  teachers,  are  as  foxes  in  the  deserts,* 
chap.  xiii.  4.  This  name  they  receive,  because,  with  vulpine  sub- 
tilty.  they  speak  ties  in  hypocrisy.  Such  teachers  the  apostle  calls 
1  wolves  in  sheep's  clothing ;'  deceitful  workers,  who,  by  their  cun- 
ning, subvert  whole  houses ;  and  whose  word,  like  the  touth  of  a 
fox  upon  the  vine,  eats  as  a  canker. 

On  a  particular  occasion,  our  Lord  speaking  of  Herod,  who  had 
threatened  to  kill  him,  applied  to  him,  metaphorically,  the  name 


THE  FOX,  OR  JACKAL.  97 

of  the  fox  or  jackal ;  *  Go,  tell  that  fox — that  crafty,  cruel,  insidious, 
devouring  creature — that  jackal  of  a  prince — who  has  indeed  ex- 
pressed his  enmity  by  his  threats,  as  jackals  indicate  their  mischiev- 
ous dispositions  by  their  barkings;  and  who  yelps  in  concert  with 
other  of  my  enemies,  jackal-like — go,  tell  him  that  I  am  safe  from 
his  fury  to-day  and  to-morrow ;  and  on  the  third  day  I  shall  be 
completed, — completely  beyond  his  power;' — alluding,  perhaps, 
to  his  resurrection  on  the  third  day.  There  have  beeii  some  doubts 
as  to  the  propriety  of  our  Redeemer's  speaking  in  such  terms  of  a 
civil  ruler,  whose  subject  he  was,  and  whose  character  he  was 
therefore  bound  to  respect  and  to  honor.  For  these  scruples,  how- 
ever, there  is  no  ground ;  the  character  of  Herod  as  a  cruel,  insidi- 
ous, and  crafty  prince,  was  too  notorious  to  be  disguised  from  any 
part  of  his  subjects  ;  and  he  who  knew  his  heart  as  well  as  witness- 
ed his  conduct,  could  speak  with  certainty  as  to  his  dispositions  and 
motives.  Besides  this,  such  metaphorical  applications  as  these  are 
much  more  common  in  the  East  than  here,  and  would,  therefore, 
not  appear  so  strong  to  our  Lord's  attendants  as  to  us. 

The  expedient  of  Samson  (Judges  xv.  4,  5,)  has  frequently  been 
made  the  butt  of  ridicule,  by  the  unbeliever  in  divine  revelation  ; 
but  without  reason.  Volney  says, '  That,  in  Syria  the  wolf  and  the 
real  fox  are  very  rare,  though  there  is  a  prodigious  quantity  of  the 
middle  species,  named  shacal,  which  go  in  droves.'  And  again ; 
'Jackals  are  concealed  by  hundreds  in  the  gardens,  and  among  ruins 
and  tombs.'  Where,  then,  was  the  difficulty  for  Samson  to  procure 
three  hundred  of  these  animals,  especially  as  the  time  during  which 
he  had  to  provide  them  for  his  purpose  was  not  limited  to  a  week 
or  a  month  ?  Besides,  it  should  be  recollected,  that  Samson  sus- 
tained the  highest  office  in  the  commonwealth,  and  could  be  at  no 
loss  for  persons  to  assist  him  in  his  enterprise. 

From  the  book  of  Exodus  we  learn,  that  before  the  passover, 
that  is,  before  the  fourteenth  day  of  the  mouth  Abib,  or  March,  bar- 
ley in  Egypt  was  in  the  ear,  chap.  xii.  18 ;  xiii.  4.  And  in  chap.  ix. 
31,  32,  it  is  said  that  the  wheat  at  that  time  was  not  grown  up.  Bar- 
ley harvest,  then,  in  Egypt,  and  so  in  the  country  of  the  Philistines 
which  bordered  upon  it,  must  have  fallen  about  the  middle  of 
March.  Wheat  harvest,  according  to  Pliny,  was  a  month  later, 
Therefore,  wheat  harvest  happened  about  the  middle  of  April, 


98  SCRIPTURE   NATURAL   HISTORY. 


THE  WILD  BOAR. 

THIS  animal,  which  is  the  original  of  all  the  varieties  of  the  hog 
kind,  is  by  no  means  so  stupid  nor  so  filthy  a  beast  as  that  we  have 
reduced  to  lameness.  He  is  something  smaller  than  the  domestic 
hog,  and  does  not  so  vary  in  his  color,  being  always  found  of  an 
iron  grey,  inclining  to  black  :  his  snout  is  much  larger  than  that  of 
the  tatne  animal,  and  the  ears  are  shorter,  rounder,  and  black ;  of 
which  color  are  also  the  feet  and  the  tail.  But  the  tusks  are  larger 
than  in  the  tame  breed  ;  they  bend  upwards  circularly,  and  are  ex- 
ceedingly sharp  at  the  points. 

The  wild  boar  roots  up  the  ground  in  a  different  manner  from  the 
common  hog  ;  the  one  turns  up  the  earth  in  little  spots  here  and 
there  ;  the  other  ploughs  it  up  like  a  furrow,  and  does  irreparable 
damage  in  the  cultivated  lands  of  the  farmer,  destroying  the  roots 
of  the  vine  and  other  plants.  From  this  we  may  see  the  propriety 
with  which  the  Psalmist  represents  the  subversion  of  the  Jewish 
commonwealth,  under  the  allegory  of  a  vine,  destroyed  by  a  boar : 
'  Thou  hast  brought  a  vine  out  of  Egypt ;  thou  hast  cast  out  the 
heathen,  and  planted  it.  Thou  preparedst  room  before  it,  and  didst 
cause  it  to  take  deep  root,  and  it  filled  the  land.  She  sent  out  her 
boughs  unto  the  sea,  and  her  branches  unto  the  river.  Why  hast 
thou  broken  down  her  hedges,  so  that  all  they  which  pass  by  the 
way  do  pluck  her  ?  The  boar  out  of  the  wood  doth  waste  it,  and 
the  wild  beast  of  the  field  doth  devour  it,'  Psalm  Ixxx.  8— -T3.  If 
this  Psalm  was  written,  as  is  supposed,  during  the  Babylonian  cap- 
tivity, the  propriety  of  the  allegory  becomes  more  apparent.  Not 
satisfied  with  devouring  the  plants  and  fruit  which  have  been  care- 
fully raised  by  the  skill  and  attention  of  the  husbandman,  the  fero- 
cious boar  lacerates  and  breaks  with  his  powerful  tusks  the  roots 
and  branches  of  the  surrounding  vines,  and  tramples  them  beneath 
his  feet.  The  reader  will  easily  apply  this  to  the  conduct  pursued 
by  the  Chaldeans  towards  the  Jewish  state,  whose  desolation  is  thus 
pathetically  bewailed  by  the  prophet :  '  The  Lord  hath  trodden  un- 
der foot  all  my  mighty  men  in  the  midst  of  me  :  he  hath  called  an 
assembly  against  me  to  crush  my  young  men :  the  Lord  hath  trod- 
den the  virgin,  the  daughter  of  Judah,  as  in  a  winepress,'  Lam.  i.  15, 

The  boar  is  extremely  fond  of  marshes,  fens,  and  reedy  places ; 
a  disposition  which  is  probably  referred  to  in  Psalm  Ixviii.  30 : « Re- 
buke the  company  of  the  spearmen.' — or,  as  it  is  literally,  '  the 
beast  of  the  reeds,'  or  canes. 


THE  BEAR. 
THE   BEAR. 


IN  the  Hebrew,  this  animal  is  very  expressively  called  the  grumfi- 
7er,  or  growler. 

Ther  are  three  kinds  of  the  bear  known  :  the  white,  the  black, 
and  the  brown.  Of  the  two  former  the  scripture  does  not  speak  ; 
the  latter  kind  being  the  only  one  known  in  the  Eastern  regions. 
The  brown  bear,  says  Buffon,  is  not  only  savage  but  solitary ;  he 
takes  refuge  in  the  most  unfrequented  parts,  and  the  most  danger- 
ons  precipices  and  uninhabited  mountains.  It  chooses  its  den  in 
the  most  gloomy  parts  of  the  forest,  in  some  cavern  that  has  been 
hollowed  by  time,  or  in  the  hollow  of  some  old  enormous  tree. 
The  disposition  of  this  animal  is  most  surly  and  rapacious,  and  his 
mischievousness  has  passed  into  a  proverb.  His  appearance  cor- 
responds with  his  temper :  his  coat  is  rugged,  his  limbs  strong  and 
thick,  and  his  countenance,  covered  with  a  dark  and  sullen  scowl, 
indicates  the  settled  moroseness  of  his  disposition.  The  sacred 
writers  frequently  associate  this  formidable  enemy  with  the  king  of 
the  forest,  as  being  equally  dangerous  and  destructive.  Thus, 
Amos,  setting  before  his  incorrigible  countrymen  the  succession  of 
calamities  which,  under  the  just  judgment  of  God,  was  about  to 
befal  them,  declares  that  the  removal  of  one  would  but  leave  anoth- 
er equally  grievous :  '  Wo  unto  you  that  desire  the  day  of  the 


100  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

Lord  !  To  what  end  is  it  for  you  ?  The  day  of  the  Lord  is  dark- 
ness, and  not  light.  As  if  a  man  did  flee  from  a  lion,  and  a  bear 
met  him,'  Amos  v.  18, 19.  And  Solomon,  who  had  closely  studied 
the  character  of  the  several  individuals  of  the  animal  kingdom, 
compares  an  unprincipled  and  wicked  ruler  to  these  creatures: 
'  As  a  roaring  lion  and  a  ranging  bear,  so  is  a  wicked  ruler  over  the 
poor  people,'  Proverbs  xxviii.  15. 

The  she-bear  is  said  to  be  even  more  fierce  and  terrible  than 
the  male,  especially  after  she  has  cubbed.  So  strong  is  her  attach- 
ment to  her  young,  and  so  extreme  the  jealousy  with  which  she 
protects  them,  that  no  stranger,  whether  man  or  beast,  is  suffered 
to  intrude  on  her  solitude  with  impunity.  This  circumstance 
finely  illustrates  the  beautiful  imagery  of  the  prophet,  employed  to 
delineate  the  amazing  change  which  the  gospel  of  Christ  will  be 
the  instrument  of  effecting  in  the  human  heart,  and  the  delightful 
harmony  which  will  follow  in  its  train :  *  And  the  cow  and  the 
bear  shall  feed,  Their  young  ones  shall  lie  down  together,' 
Isaiah  xi.  7. 

To  the  fury  of  the  femnle  bear  when  she  happens  to  be  robbed 
of  her  young,  there  are  several  striking  allusions  in  scripture. 
Those  persons  who  have  witnessed  her  under  such  circumstances, 
describe  her  rage  to  be  most  violent  and  frantic,  and  as  only  to  be 
diverted  from  the  object  of  her  vengeance  with  the  loss  of  her  life. 
How  terrible,  then,  was  the  threatening  of  the  incensed  JEHOVAH, 
in  consequence  of  the  numerous  and  aggravated  iniquities  of  the 
kingdom  of  Israel,  as  uttered  by  the  prophet  Hosea — '  I  will  meet 
them  as  a  bear  bereaved  of  her  whelps,  and  will  rend  the  caul  of 
their  heart ! '  Chap.  xiii.  8. 

The  execution  of  this  terrible  denunciation,  in  the  invasion  of 
the  land  by  the  Assyrian  armies,  and  the  utter  subversion  of  the 
kingdom,  is  well  known  to  eveiy  reader  of  scripture. 

In  the  vision  of  Daniel,  where  the  four  great  monarchies  of 
antiquity  are  symbolised  by  different  beasts  of  prey,  whose  quali- 
ties resembled  the  character  of  these  several  states,  the  Medo- 
Persian  empire  is  represented  by  a  bear,  which  raised  itself  up  on 
one  side,  and  had  between  its  teeth  three  ribs  ;  and  they  said  thus 
unto  it :  '  Arise,  devour  much  flesh,'  Daniel  vii.  5.  All  the  four 
monarchies  agreed  in  their  fierceness  and  rapacity;  but  there  were 
several  striking  differences  in  the  subordinate  features  of  their  char- 
acter, and  their  mode  of  operation,  which  is  clearly  intimated  by  the 
different  characters  of  their  symbolical  representatives.  The  Per- 
sian monarchy  is  represented  by  a  bear,  to  denote  its  cruelty  and 
greediness  after  blood  ;  and  in  this  imputation  the  prophet  Jeremi- 
ah unites,  by  designating  the  Persians 'the  spoilers,'  chap.  li.  48, 
56.  The  learned  Bochart  has  enumerated  several  points  of  resem- 
blance between  that  character  of  the  Medo-Persians  and  the  dispo* 
aitions  of  this  animal. 


SECTION  III. 
WILD    INOFFENSIVE    ANIMALS. 

THE    WILD    ASS. 

THIS  is  a  much  handsomer  and  more  dignified  animal  than  the 
common  or  domestic  ass.  Oppian  describes  it  as  '  handsome,  large, 
vigorous,  of  stately  gait,  his  coat  of  a  silvery  color,  having  a  black 
band  along  the  spine  of  his  back,  and  on  his  flanks,  patches  as 
white  as  snow.'  It  is  an  animal  adapted  for  running,  and  of  such 
swiftness  that  the  best  horses  cannot  equal  it.  From  this  quality  it 
is  that  it  derives  its  Hebrew  name ;  and,  as  it  prefers  the  most  crng- 
gy  mountains,  it  runs  with  ease  on  the  most  difficult  ground.  All 
the  ancient  writers,  who  mention  it,  notice  its  fleetness,  especially 
Xenophon,  who  says  that  it  has  long  legs ;  is  very  rapid  in  run- 
ning ;  swift  as  a  whirlwind,  having  strong  and  stout  hoofs. 

Sir  R.  K.  Porter's  account  of  a  wild  ass,  to  which  he  gave  chase, 
will  help  the  reader  to  appreciate  the  fidelity  with  which  the  writer 
of  the  book  of  Job  delineates  its  character. 

'The  sun  was  just  rising  over  the  summits  of  the  Eastern  moun- 
tains, when  my  greyhound,  Cooley,  suddenly  darted  off  in  pursuit 
of  an  animal  which  my  Persians  said,  from  the  glimpse  they  had 
of  it,  was  an  antelope.  I  instantly  put  spurs  to  my  horse,  and,  with 
my  attendants,  gave  chase.  After  an  unrelaxed  gallop  of  full  three 
miles,  we  came  up  with  the  dog,  who  was  then  within  a  short 
stretch  of  the  creature  he  pursued ;  and  to  my  surprise,  and  at  first, 
vexation,  I  saw  it  to  be  an  ass.  But,  on  a  moment's  reflection, 
judging  from  its  fleetness  it  must  be  a  wild  one,  a  species  little 
known  in  Europe,  but  which  the  Persians  prize  above  all  other 
animals,  as  an  object  of  chase,  I  determined  to  approach  as  near  lo 
it  as  the  very  swift  Arab  1  was  on  would  carry  me.  But  the  sin- 
gle instant  of  checking  my  horse  to  consider,  had  given  our  game 
such  a  head  of  us,  that  notwithstanding  all  our  speed  we  could  not 
recover  our  ground  on  him,  I,  however,  happened  to  be  consider- 
ably before  my  companions,  when,  at  a  certain  distance,  the  animal 
in  its  turn  made  a  pause,  and  allowed  me  to  approach  within  a  pis- 
tol-shot of  him  He  then  darted  off  again  with  the  quickness  of 
thought;  capering,  kicking,  and  sporting  in  his  flight,  as  if  he  were 
not  blown  in  the  least,  and  the  chase  were  his  pastime. 
9* 


102  SCRIPTURE   NATURAL   HISTORY. 

'He  appeared  to  me  to  be  about  ten  or  twelve  hands  high  ;  the 
skin  smooth,  like  a  deer's,  and  of  a  reddish  color ;  the  belly  and 
hinder  parts  partaking  of  a  silvery  grey;  his  neck  was  finer  than 
that  of  a  common  ass,  being  longer,  and  bending  like  a  stag's,  and 
his  legs  beautifully  slender;  the  head  and  ears  seemed  large  in 
proportion  to  the  gracefulness  of  these  forms,  and  by  them  I  first 
recognised  that  the  object  of  my  chase  was  of  the  ass  tribe.  The 
mane  was  short  and  black,  as  was  also  a  tuft  which  terminated  his 
tail.  No  Ijne  whatever  ran  along  his  back,  or  crossed  his  shoulders, 
as  are  seen  on  the  tame  species  with  us.  When  my  followers  of 
the  country  came  up,  they  regretted  I  had  not  shot  the  creature 
when  he  was  so  within  my  aim,  telling  me  his  flesh  is  one  of  the 
greatest  delicacies  in  Persia:  but  it  would  riot  have  been  to  eat 
him  that  I  should  have  been  glad  to  have  had  him  in  my  posses- 
sion. The  prodigious  swiftness  and  peculiar  manner  with  which 
he  fled  across  the  plain,  coincided  exactly  with  the  description  that 
Xenophon  gives  of  the  same  animal  in  Arabia.  But,  above  all,  it 
reminded  me  of  the  striking  portrait  drawn  by  the  author  of  the 
book  of  Job.1 

Let  this  account  be  compared  with  the  description  in  Job : — 
chap,  xxxix. 

The  fact,  that  the  wild  ass  delights  in  the  most  barren  and  arid 
regions,  shows  the  propriety  of  a  passage  in  Isaiah,  where  the  ex- 
treme desolation  of  the  land  of  Israel  to  be  occasioned  by  the  troops 
of  Nebuchadnezzar,  is  foretold  :  ch.  xxxii.  13,  14. 

Professor  Gmelin  states,  that  a  female  onager  he  possessed  some- 
times went  two  days  without  drinking,  and  that  brackish  water  wfcs 
better  liked  by  her  than  fresh.  A  few  blades  of  corn,  a  little  with- 
ered grass,  or  the  tops  of  a  few  scorched  shrubs  or  plants,  were 
sufficient  to  satisfy  the  cravings  of  its  appetite,  aud  render  it  con- 
tented and  happy.  Hence  we  may  conceive  the  extreme  state  of 
wretchedness  to  which  Judah  was  exposed,  by  the  dearth  which 
Jeremiah  describes  in  the  fourteenth  chapter  of  his  prophecies : — 

The  wild  asses  stood  in  the  high  places, 
They  snuffed  up  the  wind  Hke  dragons  ; 
Their  eyes  failed,  because  there  was  no  grass. — Ver.  6. 

The  extreme  propensity  of  the  Jews  to  associate  themselves  in 
acts  of  idolatrous  and  obscene  worship,  with  the  heathen  nations  by 
which  they  were  surrounded,  has  induced  the  prophet  to  refer  to 
the  violence  of  lust,  and  unrestrainable  eagerness  to  satisfy  the 
prompting  of  desire,  in  this  animal :  'How  canst  thou  say  I  am  not 
polluted,  I  have  not  gone  after  Baalim?  See  thy  way  in  the  val- 
ley, know  what  thou  hast  done  ;  thou  art  a  swift  dromedary,  trav- 
ersing her  ways ;  a  wild  ass  used  to  the  wilderness,  that  snuffeth  up 
the  wind  at  her  pleasure  :  in  her  occasion  who  can  turn  her  away  ? 
All  they  that  seek  her  will  not  weary  themselves;  after  her  season 
they  will  find  her,'  ch.  ii.  23,  24.  Every  means  used  to  restrain 
them  from  their  idolatrous  purposes  proved  unavailing:  they 


THE   WILD  ASS.  103 

'snuffed  up  the  wind  at  their  pleasure,'  and  wearied  the  prophets 
of  the  Most  High,  till  the  armies  of  the  Chaldeans  subdued  their 
spirit,  and  scattered  them  abroad  for  a  season. 

The  ignorance  and  self-conceit  of  man  is  strongly  asserted  in 
Job  xi.  12,  by  a  reference  to  this  animal :  '  Vain  man  would  be 
wise,  though  he  be  born  a  wild  ass's  colt ; '  or  ass-colt ;  a  prover- 
bial expression,  denoting  extreme  perversity  and  ferocity,  and  one 
repeatedly  alluded  to  in  the  Old  Testament.  Thus,  in  Gen.  xvi. 
12,  it  is  prophesied  of  Ishmael,  that  he  should  be  a  wild-ass  man  ; 
rough,  untaught,  and  libertine  as  a  wild  ass.  So  Hosea  xiii.  ]5: 
'He  (Ephraim)  hath  run  wild  amidst  the  braying  monsters.'  So 
again,  in  ch.  viii.  9,  the  very  same  character  is  given  of  Ephraim, 
who  is  called  *  a  solitary  wild  ass  by  himself,'  or  perhaps  a  solitary 
wild  ass  of  the  desert;  for  the  original  will  bear  to  be  so  rendered. 
This  proverbial  expression  has  descended  among  the  Arabians  to 
the  present  day,  who  still  employ,  the  expressions  *  the  ass  of  the 
desert,'  or,  <  the  wild  ass,'  to  describe  an  obstinate,  indocile,  and 
contumacious  person.  In  Job  xxiv.  5,  robbers  and  plunderers  are 
distinguished  by  the  odious  term  of  wild  asses.  The  passage  refers, 
evidently,  says  Mr.  Good,  'not  to  the  proud  and  haughty  tyrants 
themselves,  but  to  the  oppressed  and  needy  wretches,  the  Bed- 
ouins and  other  plundering  tribes,  whom  their  extortion  and  vio- 
lence had  driven  from  society,  and  compelled  in  a  body  to  seek  for 
subsistence  by  public  robbery  and  pillage.  In  this  sense  the  de- 
scription is  admirably  forcible  and  characteristic.'  So  the  son  of 
Sirach  says  (Ecclus.  xiii.  19) :  'As  the  wild  ass  is  the  lion's  prey  in 
the  wilderness,  so  the  rich  eat  up  the  poor.' 


104  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

THE   ROCK    GOAT,  OR  IBEX. 


THE  best  account  which  we  have  of  this  creature,  is  furnished  by 
the  late  Mr.  Charles  Taylor,  from  whom  we  have  selected  the  mar 
terials  for  the  following  article. 

There  are  three  places  in  scripture  where  an  animal  of  the  goat 
kind  is  mentioned,  either  directly,  or  by  allusion,  1  Sam.  xxiv.  2, 
'Saul  went  to  seek  David  and  his  men  on  the  rocks  of  the  wild  goats  :' 
literally,  on  the  superfices,  or  on  the  face  of  the  rocks  of  the  IOLIM. 
Psalm  civ.  18:  'The  high  mountains  to  the  Ibices,  (louai)  are  a 
refuge  ;  rocks  are  the  refuge  to  the  Saphanim.1  But  there  is  a  third 
passage  where  it  is  more  distinctly  referred  to,  and  its  manners  de- 
scribed at  greater  length  : — in  our  translation,  *  Knowest  thou  the 
time  when  the  wild  goats  of  the  rocks  bring  forth?  Canst  thou 
mark  when  the  hinds  do  calve  ?  Canst  thou  number  the  months 
they  fulfil  ?  or  knowest  thou  the  time  when  they  bring  forth  ?  They 
bow  themselves :  they  bring  forth  their  young  ones  ;  they  cast  out 
their  sorrows.  Their  young  ones  are  in  good  liking ;  they  grow  up 
with  corn;  they  go  forth,  and  return  not  to  them,'  Job  xxxix.  1—4. 
A  fourth  passage  presents  this  creature,  the  IOLEH,  in  a  feminine 
form :  '  Let  thy  wife  be  as  the  loving  hind,  and  the  pleasant  roe,' 
Proverbs  v.  19. 

The  specific  character  of  the  Bouquetin,  or  rock  goat,  is  taken 
from  the  beard  and  horns,  which  are  knobbed  along  the  upper  or 
anterior  surface,  and  recline  towards  the  back.  The  wild  goat  is 
larger  than  the  tame  goat,  but  resembles  it  much  in  the  outer  form. 
The  head  is  small  in  proportion  to  the  body,  with  the  muzzle  thick 


THE  ROCK  GOAT,  OR  IBEX.  105 

and  compressed,  and  a  little  arched.  The  eyes  are  large  and  round, 
and  have  much  fire  and  brilliancy.  The  horns  are  large,  when  of 
a  full  size,  weighing  sometimes  sixteen  or  eighteen  pounds,  flatted 
before  and  rounded  behind,  with  one  or  two  longitudinal  ridges, 
and  many  transverse  ridges,  which  degenerate  towards  the  tip  into 
knobs.  The  colour  is  dusky  brown ;  the  beard  long,  tawny,  or 
dusky  ;  the  legs  slender,  with  hoofs  short,  hollow  on  the  inside,  and 
on  the  outside  terminated  by  a  salient  border,  like  those  of  the  cha- 
mois. The  body  is  short,  thick  and  strong ;  the  tail  short,  naked 
underneath,  the  rest  covered  with  long  hairs,  white  at  the  base  and 
sides,  black  above  and  at  the  end.  The  coat  is  long,  but  not  pen- 
dent, ash  coloured,  mixed  with  some  hoary  hairs.  A  black  list 
runs  along  the  back,  and  there  is  a  black  spot  above  and  below  the 
knees.  Its  color,  however,  like  that  of  other  animals,  must  neces- 
sarily vary  according  to  its  age,  and  to  local  circumstance?. 

The  female  is  one-third  less  than  the  male,  and  not  so  corpulent : 
her  color  is  less  tawny  ;  and  her  horns  are  not  above  eight  inches 
long. 

In  a  state  of  tranquillity,  the  rock  goat  commonly  carries  the  head 
low  ;  but  in  running  it  holds  it  high,  and  even  bends  it  a  little  for- 
ward. It  mounts  a  perpendicular  rock  of  fifteen  feet  at  three  leaps, 
or  rather  three  successive  leaps,  or  three  successive  bounds  of  five 
feet  each.  It  does  not  seem  as  if  he  found  any  footing  on  the  rock, 
appearing  to  touch  it  merely  to  be  repelled,  like  an  elastic  sub- 
stance striking  against  a  hard  body.  If  he  is  between  two  rocks 
which  are  near  each  other,  and  wants  to  reach  the  top,  he  leaps 
from  the  side  of  one  rock  to  the  other  alternately,' till  he  has  obtain- 
ed the  summit.  He  also  traverses  the  glaciers  with  rapidity  when 
he  is  pursued. 

The  Bouquetins  feed,  during  the  night,  in  the  highest  woods ; 
but  the  sun  no  sooner  begins  to  gild  the  summits,  than  they  quit 
the  woody  region,  and  mount,  feeding  in  their  progress,  till  they 
have  reached  the  most  considerable  heights.  They  betake  them- 
selves to  the  sides  of  the  mountains  which  face  the  east  or  south, 
and  lie  down  in  the  highest  places  and  hottest  exposures ;  but  when 
the  sun  has  finished  more  than  three  quarters  of  its  course,  they 
again  begin  to  feed,  and  to  descend  towards  the  woods ;  whither 
they  retire  when  it  is  likely  to  snow,  and  where  they  always  pass 
the  winter.  The  Bouquetins  assemble  in  flocks,  consisting  at  most 
of  ten,  twelve,  or  fifteen;  but  more  usually  in  smaller  numbers. 
The  males  which  are  six  years  old  and  upwards,  haunt  more  ele- 
vated places  than  the  females  and  the  younger  Bouquetins ;  and  as 
they  advance  in  age,  they  are  less  fond  of  society,  and  frequently 
live  entirely  alone.  Having  their  fore  legs  somewhat  shorter  than 
the  hind  legs,  they  naturally  ascend  with  greater  facility  than  they 
descend ;  for  this  reason,  nothing  but  the  severest  weather  can  en- 
gage them  to  come  down  into  the  lower  regions ;  and  even  in  win- 
ter, if  there  are  a  few  fine  days,  they  leave  the  woods  and  mount 
higher.  These  facts  were  not  unobserved  by  the  Psalmist,  as  we 
§ee  from  one  of  the  passages  above  cited. 


106 


SCRIPTURE   NATURAL  HISTORY. 


None  but  the  inhabitants  of  the  mountains  engage  in  the  chase 
of  this  animal ;  for  it  requires,  not  only  a  head  that  can  bear  to  look 
down  from  the  greatest  heights  without  terror ;  address  and  sure 
footedness  in  the  most  difficult  and  dangerous  passes ;  and  to  be 
an  excellent  marksman  ;  but  also  much  strength  and  vigor,  to  sup- 
port hunger,  cold,  and  prodigious  fatigue.  This  shows  the  propri- 
ety with  which  the  inspired  writer  calls  the  dreary  and  frightful 
precipices  which  frown  over  the  Dead  Sea,  towards  the  wilderness 
of  Engedi.  *  The  rocks  of  the  wild  goats  ;'  as  if  accessible  only  to 
those  animals. 


THE  ANTELOPE. 


THIS  animal  is  not  mentioned  in  our  translation  of  the  Bible ; 
but  it  is  generally  agreed,  that  the  Zebi,  which  our  translators  take 
for  the  roe,  is  the  gazelle,  or  antelope.  The  former  animal  is  ex- 
tremely rare  in  Palestine  and  the  adjoining  countries ;  while  the  latter 
is  common  in  every  part  of  the  Levant.  Add  to  this,  that  the  Zebi 
was  allowed  to  the  Hebrews,  as  an  article  of  food,  (Deut.  xii.  5, 
&c.),  and  scarcely  a  doubt  can  remain  on  the  subject. 

The  name  of  this  animal,  which  is  from  a  verb  signifying  to  as- 
semble, or  collect  together,  is  very  characteristic  of  the  gregarious 
character  of  the  antelope,  which  live  together  in  large  troops,  to  the 
number  sometimes  of  two  or  three  thousand.  The  Septuagint,  or 
Greek  version  of  the  Bible,  uniformly  translates  the  Hebrew  word 
beauty ;  and  it  is  so  translated,  2  Sain.  i.  19  ;  Isaiah  iv.  2  j  Ezek.  vii. 
20,  &c. 


THE  ANTELOPE.  107 

The  gazelle  forms  a  connecting  species  between  the  goat  and  the 
deer  kinds ;  somewhat  resembling  the  former  internally,  and  the 
latter  externally,  excepting  its  horns,  which  are  annulated  or  ring- 
ed round,  with  longitudinal  depressions  running  from  the  bottom  to 
the  point.  Of  all  animals  in  the  world  the  gazelle  is  said  to  have 
the  most  beautiful  eye. 

From  Dr.  Russell  we  learn,  that  the  inhabitants  of  Syria  distin- 
guish between  the  antelope  of  the  mountain,  and  that  of  the  plain. 
The  former  is  the  most  beautifully  formed,  and  it  bounds  with  sur- 
prising agility  ;  the  latter  is  of  a  much  lighter  color,  and  is  neither 
so  strong  nor  so  active.  Both,  however,  are  so  fleet,  that  the  grey- 
hounds, though  reckoned  excellent  cannot,  come  up  with  them, 
without  the  aid  of  the  falcon,  except  in  soft  deep  ground.  It  is  to 
the  former  species  of  this  animal,  apparently,  that  the  saci-ed  writers 
allude,  since  they  distinctly  notice  their  fleetness  upon  the  moun- 
tains, 1  Chron.  xii.  8  ;  Cant.  ii.  8,  9, 17  ;  viii.  14. 

The  usual  method  of  taking  the  antelope  is  by  hunting  it  with 
the  falcon,  or  the  ounce ;  but  it  is  sometimes  taken  by  the  following 
expedient.  A  tame  antelope,  bred  up  for  the  purpose,  is  taught  to 
'join  those  of  its  kind  wherever  it  perceives  them.  When  the  hun- 
ter, therefore,  discovers  a  herd  of  these  together,  he  fixes  a  noose 
round  the  horns  of  the  tame  animal,  in  such  a  manner,  lhat  if  the 
rest  but  touch  it  they  are  entangled  ;  and  thus  prepared,  he  sends 
his  antelope  among  the  rest.  The  tame  animal  no  sooner  ap- 
proaches, but  the  males  of  the  herd  instantly  sally  forth  to  oppose 
him;  and  in  butting  with  their  horns  are  caught  in  the  noose. 
Finding  itself  taken  in  the  snare,  terror  lends  it  additional  strength 
and  activity,  and  it  makes  the  most  vigorous  exertions  to  disentan- 
gle itself,  and  escape  before  the  hunter  can  come  up  with  it.  Its 
effort  under  these  circumstances  is  proposed  for  imitation  to  the 
person  who  had  rashly  become  surety  for  his  neighbor :  *  Deliver 
thyself  as  an  antelope  from  the  hand  of  the  hunter,  and  as  a  bird 
from  the  hand  of  the  fowler,'  (Prov.  vi.  5.) ;  that  is,  *  Thou  hast  im- 
prudently placed  thyself  in  perilous  circumstances,  suffer  no  delay 
in  making  an  effort  for  thy  release.' 

There  seems  to  be  something  so  highly  figurative  in  the  exclama- 
tion of  the  bride,  (Cant.  i.  7),  'Tell  me,  O  thou,  whom  my  soul 
loveth,  where  thou  feedest,'  &c.  that  it  has  never  occurred  to  critics, 
that  the  speaker,  assuming  the  metaphorical  character  of  a  gazette 
or  antelope,  inquires  for  the  resting  place  of  the  flock,  wherein  she 
also  might  rest.  They  have  usually  supposed  that  she  makes  this 
inquiry  in  the  character  of  a  shepherdess,  meaning  to  accompany 
her  shepherd,  and  to  associate  with  him  at  the  noon  time  of  day, 
when  he  would  be  reposing. 


108 


SCRIPTURE  NATURAL   HISTORY. 


THE    HART    AND    THE    HIND 


THE  hind  and  the  roe,  and  the  hart  and  the  antelope,  have  al- 
ways been  held  in  the  highest  estimation  hy  the  orientals,  for  the 
voluptuous  beauty  of  their  eyes,  the  delicate  elegance  of  their  form, 
and  their  graceful  agility  of  action.  In  the  sacred  writings,  there- 
fore, as  well  as  in  other  literary  compositions  of  the  East,  we  fre- 
quently meet  with  direct  references,  or  incidental  allusions  to  their 
qualities  and  habits.  The  hart,  which  is  the  stag  or  male  deer,  is 
one  of  those  innocent  and  peaceable  animals  that  seem  to  embellish 
the  forest,  and  animate  the  solitudes  of  nature.  The  easy  elegance 
of  his  form,  the  lightness  of  his  motions;  those  large  branches  that 
seem  made  rather  for  the  ornament  of  his  head  than  its  defence ; 
the  size,  the  strength,  and  the  swiftness  Of  this  beautiful  creature; 
all  sufficiently  rank  him  among  the  first  of  quadrupeds,  and  among 
the  most  noted  objects  of  human  curiosity.  But,  as  this  animal  is 
so  well  known,  it  is  not  necessary  that  we  should  occupy  much  of 
our  space  in  minute  verbal  description.  The  horns  of  the  deer, 


THE  HART  AND  THE  HIND.  109 

however,  arc  objects  of  too  curious  a  description  to  be  passed  over 
in  silence,  especially  as  we  shall  have  occasion  to  notice  them 
somewhat  particularly,  in  order  to  ascertain  the  import  of  an  ob^ 
scure  passage  of  scripture.  The  size  of  the  deer's  antlers  is  in  pro- 
portion to  its  age,  and  are  shed  every  year:  in  full  grown  animals 
they  are  very  large,  and  give  an  expansion  and  beauty  to  the  head 
which  is  remarkably  striking.  Their  growth  and  extension  are 
affected  by  several  external  circumstances ;  and  Buffon  thinks  it 
possible  to  retard  their  growth  entirely,  by  greatly  retrenching  the 
animal's  food.  A  stag  bred  in  fertile  pastures,  and  undisturbed 
by  the  hunter,  has  his  head  expanded,  his  antlers  numerous,  and 
his  branches  thick ;  while  one  often  pursued  and  ill  nourished,  has 
but  few  antlers,  and  the  expansion  but  little.  The  beauty  and  size 
of  their  horns,  therefore,  mark  their  strength  and  vigor. 

The  deer  is  a  ruminating  animal,  and  divides  the  hoof;  it  was 
therefore  permitted  to  be  eaten  by  the  Mosaic  law,  Deut.  xii.  15 ; 
xiv.  5.  This  was  a  great  advantage  to  the  Israelites,  as  the  moun- 
tainous tracts  of  Lebanon,  Gilead,  and  Carmel,  abounded  with  deer, 
and  supplied  them  with  a  rich  provision  of  agreeable  food. 

Naturally  of  a  hot  and  arid  constitution,  the  deer  suffers  much 
from  thirst  in  the  oriental  regions.  He  therefore  seeks  the  fountain 
or  the  stream  with  intense  desire,  particularly  when  his  natural 
thirst  has  been  aggravated  by  the  pursuit  of  the  hunter.  Panting 
and  braying,  with  eagerness  lie  precipitates  himself  into  the  river, 
that  he  may  quench  at  once  the  burning  fever  which  consumes  his 
vitals,  in  its  cooling  waters.  No  circumstance  can  display  more 
forcibly  the  ardent  breathings  of  divine  love  in  the  soul  of  a  true 
believer  ;  and  the  holy  Psalmist  has  availed  himself  of  it,  with  ad- 
mirable propriety  and  effect,  in  the  description  of  his  religious  feel- 
ings, when  exiled  from  the  house  of  God,  and  a  dejected  wanderer 
near  the  sources  of  the  Jordan  :  '  As  the  hart  panteth  after  the  wa- 
ter brooks,  so  panteth  my  soul  after  thee,  O  God.  My  soul  thirst- 
eth  for  God,  for  the  living  God :  when  shall  I  come  and  appear 
before  God?'  Thus  importunate  are  the  desires  of  the  genuine 
saint;  thus  earnestly  he  longs  after  communion  with  his  God;  he 
feels  impatient  at  a  distance  from  the  sanctuary,  and  finds  it  impos- 
sible to  be  satisfied  with  any  enjoyment  less  than  the  sensible  en- 
joyment of  his  Redeemer's  favor. 

The  deer  seems  to  resemble  the  goat,  in  being  remarkably  sure 
footed,  and  delighting  in  elevated  situations.  It  possesses  extraor- 
dinary swiftness,  and  will  bound,  with  surprising  agility,  more  than 
fifty  feet.  It  is,  therefor,  with  admirable  propriety  and  force,  that 
the  spouse  compares  the  sudden  manifestations  of  her  Saviour's 
love  and  power,  to  the  bounding  of  the  hart  on  the  summits  of  the 
mountains:  'The  voice  of  my  beloved  !  behold,  he  cometh  leaping 
upon  the  mountains,  skipping  upon  the  hills,'  Cant.  ii.  8.  To  give 
us  some  idea  of  the  joy  and  triumph  which  the  Messiah's  appear* 
ance  in  human  nature,  his  resurrection  from  the  dead,  and  the 
establishment  of  his  kingdom  in  all  its  glory,  should  produce  in  the 


110  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

hearts  of  perishing  sinners,  the  prophet  Isaiah  borrows  the  same 
figure  : — *  Then  shall  the  lame  man  leap  as  a  hart,  and  the  tongue 
of  the  dumb  shall  sing,'  chap.  xxxv.  6. 

The  hind,  or  female  stag,  is  a  lovely  creature,  and  of  an  elegant 
shape ;  though  she  is  more  feeble  than  the  hart,  and  destitute  of 
horns.  It  is  not  known,  we  believe,  that  the  hind  is  more  sure  foot- 
ed than  the  hart,  although  the  figure  employed  by  both  David  and 
Habakkuk,  seems  to  indicate  as  much.  The  royal  Psalmist,  allud- 
ing to  the  security  of  his  position,  under  the  protection  of  his  God, 
says,  '  He  rnaketh  my  feet  like  hind's  feet,  and  setteth  me  upon  my 
high  places,'  (Psalm  xviii.  33) ;  and  the  prophet,  reposing  in  the 
same  power,  anticipates  a  full  deliverance  from  his  existing  trou- 
bles, and  a  complete  escape  from  surrounding  dangers:  'He  will 
make  my  feet  like  hind's  feet,  and  he  will  make  me  to  walk  upon 
mine  high  places,'  Hal),  iii.  19.  This  passage  has  given  rise  to  con- 
siderable discussion  among  the  learned. 

In  Prov.  v.  18, 19,  Solomon  admonishes  the  young  man  to  let 
the  wife  of  his  bosom  be  to  him  'as  the  loving  hind  and  pleasant 
roe  ;'  a  beautiful  allusion  to  the  mutual  fondness  of  the  stag  and 
hind.  The  only  remaining  passage  of  scripture  in  which  this  ani- 
mal is  mentioned,  requiring  illustration,  is  the  prophetic  blessing 
pronounced  on  Naphtali  by  the  dying  patriarch — a  passage  which 
is  involved  in  considerable  difficulty  and  obscurity.  In  our  trans- 
lation it  stands  thus :  '  Naphtali  is  a  hind  let  loose,  he  giveth  good- 
ly words,'  (Gen.  xlix.  21) ; — a  rendering  which  exhibits  a  singular 
confusion  of  ideas.  The  subject  of  the  prophecy  is  represented  as 
being  both  masculine  and  feminine :  a  hind  is  said  to  speak  words 
— •goodly  words — a  phraseology  in  which  there  is  no  unity  of  allu- 
sion, to  say  nothing  of  its  want  of  correspondence  with  the  subse- 
quent history  of  the  tribe,  but  which  correspondence  is  found  in  a 
nice  degree,  in  every  other  paragraph  of  this  beautiful  composition. 

The  late  editor  of  Calmet  undertook  a  very  careful  analysis  of 
this  passage,  and  gives,  as  its  result,  the  following  version  :  '  Naph- 
tali is  a  deer  roaming  at  liberty,  he  shooteth  forth  noble  branches 
(majestic  antlers.?  The  English  word  branches,  is  applied  to  the 
stag,  with  exactly  the  same  allusion  as  the  Hebrew  word  :  the  French 
say  bois  (wood),  for  a  stag's  horns.  The  horns  of  a  stag  are  annu- 
ally shed,  and  re-produced  ;  and  as  we  have  already  said,  they  are 
ample  if  his  pasturage  has  been  plentiful  and  nutritious ;  or  stinted 
in  their  growth,  if  his  food  has  been  sparing,  or  deficient  in  nourish- 
ment. liufFon  reasons  at  length  on  this  subject. — '  There  is  so  inti- 
mate a  relation,'  he  says,  'be- ween  nutrition  and  the  production  of 
the  antlers,  &c.  that  we  have  formerly  established  its  entire  depen- 
dence on  a  superabundance  of  nourishment.  After  the  first  year,  in 
the  month  of  May,  the  horns  begin  to  shoot,  and  form  two  projec- 
tions, which  lengthen  and  harden,  in  proportion  as  the  animal  takes 
nourishment.  This  effect  (of  nourishment)  appears,  especially  on 
the  summit  of  the  head,  where  it  manifests  itself  more  than  every 
where  else,  by  the  production  of  the  horns  . . .  Another  proof  that 


THE  HART  AND  THE  HIND.  Ill 

the  production  of  the  horns  arises  wholly  from  the  superabundance 
of  nourishment,  is  the  difference  which  is  found  between  the  horns 
of  stags  of  the  same  age,  of  which  some  are  very  thick  and  spread- 
ing, while  others  are  thin  and  slender,  which  depends  absolutely  on 
the  quantity  of  nourishment :  for,  a  stag  which  inhabits  a  plentiful 
country,  where  he  feeds  at  his  will ;  where  he  is  not  molested  by 
dogs  or  by  men  ;  where,  having  eaten  quietly,  he  may  afterwards 
ruminate  at  his  ease,  will  always  show  a  head  beautiful,  high,  and 
spreading :  palms  large  and  well-furnished  :  the  stem  of  his  horns 
thick,  well-pearled,  with  numerous  antlers,  long  and  strong  :  where- 
as, he  who  inhabits  a  country  where  he  has  neither  quiet  nor  nour- 
ishment sufficient,  will  show  but  an  impoverished  head,  few  antlers, 
and  feeble  stems;  INSOMUCH,  THAT  IT  19  ALWAYS  EASY  TO  DETER- 
MINE, BY  EXAMINING  THE  HEAD  OF  A  STAG,  WHETHER  HE  INHABITS 
A  PLENTIFUL  AND  QUIET  COUNTRY,  AND  WHETHER  HE  HAS  BEEN 
WELL  OR  ILL  FED.' 

The  prediction  of  Jacob,  then,  may  be  thus  understood :  '  Naph- 
tali  shall  inhabit  a  country  so  rich,  so  fertile,  so  quiet,  so  unmolest- 
ed, that,  after  having  fed  to  the  full,  on  the  most  nutritious  pastur- 
age, he  shall  shoot  out  branches,  i.  e.  antlers,  &c.,  of  the  most  majes- 
tic magnitude.'  Thus  the  patriarch  denotes  the  happy  lot  of  Naph- 
tali ;  not  directly,  but  indirectly ;  not  by  the  energy  of  immediate 
description,  but  by  inevitable  inference,  arising  from  the  observation 
of  its  effects.  In  fact,  the  lot  of  this  tribe  was  rich  in  pasture,  and 
4  his  soil,'  as  Calrnet  observes, '  was  very  fruitful  in  corn  and  oil,' 
So  that  we  have  correct  verbal  propriety,  and  the  subsequent  fulfil, 
ment  of  the  prophecy,  in  favor  of  this  interpretation. 

The  residence  of  Naphtali  was  a  beautiful  woodland  country,  ex- 
tending to  Mount  Lebanon,  and  producing  fruits  of  every  sort. — 
Moses  says  (Deut.  xxxiii,  23)  Naphtali  shall  enjoy  abundance  of  fa- 
vor and  be  filled  with  the  blessings  of  the  Lord.  Joseph  us  speaks 
highly  of  the  fertility  of  Galilee,  which  comprised  the  lot  of  the 
tribe,  arid  reckons  two  hundred  and  fourteen  towns  in  the  province. 
It  needs  little  proof  that  such  a  country  was  likely  to  yield  abun- 
dance of  nourishment  for  deer,  which  might  display  its  prolific  ef- 
fects in  the  growth  and  magnitude  of  the  horns,  and'their  branches : 
so  that  this  country  might  literally  fulfil  the  patriarch's  blessing, 
which  is  not  always  to  be  expected  in  figurative  language, 


112  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

THE    HARE    AND    THE    CONEY. 


IN  Lev.  xi.  the  Jewish  legislator  places  the  hare  among  unclean 
animals,  because,  *  although  he  chews  the  cud,  he  divides  not  the 
hoof.' 

Like  all  other  animals  that  feed  entirely  upon  vegetables,  the 
hare  is  inoffensive  and  timorous.  As  natur'e  furnishes  it  with  an 
abundant  supply,  it  has  not  that  rapacity  after  food  remarkable  in 
such  as  are  often  stinted  in  their  provisions.  It  is  extremely  active, 
and  amazingly  swift,  to  which  it  chiefly  owes  its  protection ;  for, 
being  the  prey  of  every  voracious  animal,  it  is  incessantly  pursued. 
The  eyes  of  the  hare  are  large  and  prominent,  and  placed  so  far 
backward  in  its  head,  that  it  can  almost  see  behind  it  as  it  runs. 
They  are  never  wholly  closed ;  but,  as  the  animal  is  continually 
upon  the  watch,  it  sleeps  with  them  open.  The  ears  are  still  more 
remarkable  for  their  size ;  they  are  moveable,  and  can  be  directed 
to  every  quarter;  so  that  the  smallest  sounds  are  readily  received, 
and  the  animal's  motions  directed  accordingly.  The  muscles  of 
the  body  are  very  strong,  and  without  fat,  so  that  it  may  be  said  to 
carry  no  superfluous  burthen  of  flesh  about  it.  The  hinder  feet  are 
larger  than  the  fore,  which  still  adds  to  the  rapidity  of  its  motions ; 
and  almost  all  animals  that  are  remarkable  for  their  speed,  except 
the  horse,  are  formed  in  the  same  manner.  The  hare  multiplies 
exceedingly ;  and,  were  it  not  for  the  depredations  made  upon  the 
race  by  most  other  animals,  it  would  quickly  overrun  the  earth. 

The  flesh  of  this  animal  has  been  esteemed  a  delicacy  by  some 
nations,  but  is  held  in  detestation  by  others.  The  Jews,  the  ancient 
Britons,  and  the  Mahometans,  all  considered  it  as  unclean,  and  re- 


THE  HARE  AND  THE  CONEY.       113 

ligiously  abstained  from  it.  On  the  contrary,  there  are  scarcely  any 
other  people,  however  barbarous,  who  do  not  consider  it  as  the  most 
agreeable  food. 

The  English  translators,  in  common  with  several  others,  have 
taken  an  animal  mentioned  in  Leviticus  xi.  6,  and  other  parts  of 
the  Bible,  to  be  the  coney  or  rabbit.  But,  to  say  nothing  against 
the  improbability  of  this  animal  being  common  to  Arabia  or  Judea, 
there  is  another  formidable  objection  to  this  interpretation ;  namely, 
the  want  of  conformity  between  the  habits  of  the  rabbit  and  those 
attributed  to  the  saphan  (Eng.  Tr.  Coney)  by  the  sacred  writers. 
*  The  high  hills,'  says  David,  'are  a  refuge  for  the  wild  goats,  and 
the  rocks  for  the  saphans'  (Eng.  Tr.  Conies),  Psa.  civ.  18.  Solomon 
notices  the  same  fact,  in  Prov.  xxx.  26 :  « The  saphans  (Eng.  Tr. 
Conies)  are  but  a  feeble  folk,  yet  make  they  their  houses  in  the 
rocks.'  Now,  it  is  well  known,  that  the  rabbit,  instead  of  fixing  its 
residence  in  the  flinty  rock,  uniformly  takes  up  its  dwelling  in  the 
sandy  ground,  and  invariably  frequents  the  plain. 

Bochart,  admitting  these  difficulties,  takes  the  saphan  to  be  the 
jerboa,  or  leaping  mouse  ;  but  Bruce  has  shown  that  the  only  ani- 
mal which  answers  to  its  description,  is  the  ashkoko;  or  as  it  is 
called  iii  Arabia  and  Syria,  Ganam-lsrael,  or  '  Israel's  sheep.'  The 
following  is  Dr.  Shaw's  description  of  this  curious  animal 

'It  is  a  harmless  creature,  of  the.  same  size  and  quality  with  the 
rabbit,  and  with  the  like  incurvating  posture  and  disposition  of  the 
fore  teeth.  But  it  is  of  a  browner  color,  with  smaller  eyes,  and  a 
head  more  pointed,  like  the  marmot's.  The  fore-feet  are  short,  and 
the  hinder  are  nearly  as  long  in  proportion  as  those  of  the  jerboa. 
Though  this  animal  is  known  to  burrow  sometimes  in  the  ground, 
yet  as  its  usual  residence  and  refuge  is  in  the  holes  and  clefts  of  the 
rocks,  we  have  so  far  a  more  presumptive  proof,  that  this  creature 
may  be  the  saphan  of  the  scriptures  than  the  jerboa.'  The  Dr. 
could  riot  learn  why  this  animal  was  called  *  Israel's  lamb.' 

Mr.  Bruce's  description  is  very  full :  we  select  the  following  par- 
ticulars. 'The  ashkoko  are  gregarious,  and  frequently  several 
dozens  of  them  sit  upon  the  great  stones  at  the  mouths  of  caves, 
and  warm  themselves  in  the  sun,  or  even  come  out  and  enjoy  the 
freshness  of  the  summer  evening.  They  have  something  very  mild, 
feeble-like,  and  timid  in  their  deportment ;  are  gentle,  and  easily 
tamed  ;  though,  when  roughly  handled  at  the  first,  they  bite  very 
severely.  All  over  his  body  he  has  scattered  hairs,  strong  and  pol- 
ished like  his  mustachoes  ;  for  the  most  part  two  inches  and  a  quar- 
ter in  length.  His  ears  are  round,  nqt  pointed ;  he  makes  no  noise, 
but  certainly  chews  the  cud.'  After  combating  the  notion  that  the 
saphan  is  the  coney  or  rabbit,  Mr.  Bruce  proceeds  to  apply  the 
character  which  the  sacred  writers  give  of  this  animal  to  the  ash- 
koko. He  is  above  all  other  animals  so  much  attached  to  the  rock, 
that  this  celebrated  traveller  never  once  saw  him  on  the  ground,  oy 
from  among  large  stones  in  the  mouths  of  caves,  where  is  his  cou- 
'  10* 


114  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

slant  residence.  He  is  in  Judea,  Palestine,  and  Arabia,  and  conse- 
quently must  have  been  familiar  to  Solomon.  David  describes  him 
very  pertinently,  and  joins  him  with  other  animals  perfectly  known 
to  all  men:  'The  hills  are  a  refuge  for  the  wild  goats,  and  the  rocks 
for  the  saphan,'  or  ashkoko,  Ps.  civ.  18.  And  Solomon  says, 
'  There  be  four  things  which  are  little  upon  earth,  but  they  are  ex- 
ceeding wise.  The  saphanim  are  a  feeble  folk,  yet  they  make  their 
houses  in  rocks,'  Prov.  xxx.  24 — 26.  This,  Bruce  argues,  very  ob- 
viously fixes  the  ashkoko  to  be  the  saphan  ;  for  this  weakness  seems 
to  allude  to  his  feet,  and  how  inadequate  these  are  to  dig  holes  in 
the  rock,  where  yet,  however,  he  lodges.  They  are,  as  already  ob- 
served, perfectly  round,  very  pulpy  or  fleshy,  liable  to  be  excoriated 
or  hurt,  and  of  a  soft  fleshy  substance.  Notwithstanding  this,  how- 
ever, they  build  houses  in  the  very  hardest  rocks, more  inaccessible 
than  those  of  the  rabbit,  and  in  which  they  abide  in  greater  safety ; 
not  by  exertion  of  strength,  for  they  have 'it  not,  being  truly  as  Sol- 
omon says,  a  feeble  folk,  but  by  their  own  sagacity  and  judgment, 
and  are,  therefore,  justly  described  as  wise.  Lastly,  what  leaves 
the  thing  without  doubt  is,  that  some  of  the  Arabs,  particularly  Da- 
rnir,  say,  that  the  saphan  has  no  tail ;  that  it  is  less  than  a  cat,  and 
lives  in  houses ;  that  is,  not  houses  with  men,  as  there  are  few  of 
these  in  the  country  where  the  saphan  is  ;  but  that  he  builds  houses, 
or  nests  of  straw,  as  Solomon  has  said  of  him,  in  contradistinction 
to  the  rabbit,  and  rat,  and  those  other  animals  that  burrow  in  the 
ground,  who  cannot  be  said  to  build  houses,  as  is  expressly  said  of 
the  saphan. 


THE    MOUSE. 


THIS  animal  was  declared  by  the  Jewish  legislator  to  be  unclean 
(Lev.  xi.  29),  which  indicates  that  it  was  occasionally  adopted  as  an 
article  of  food.  It  was,  indeed,  one  of  the  abominations  charged 
upon  the  people  in  the  time  of  Isaiah,  for  which  they  were  threaten- 
ed with  signal  punishment,  Isaiah  Ixvi.  17. 

But  the  Hebrew  acbar,  which  our  version  renders  mewse,  is 
thought  to  describe  the  jerboa,  an  animal  which  is  classed  by  the 


THE  MOLE.  115 

Arabs  under  the  El  Jlkbar,  or  largest  of  the  mus  montanus.  It  is  found 
all  over  Africa,  Syria,  and  other  Eastern  countries.  It  is  only  about 
five  inches  long,  stands  upon  its  hind  legs,  and  rests  itself  by  some- 
times sitting  backwards,  but  seldom  supports  itself  upon  all  its  four 
legs  at  once.  When  it  thus  stands  upright,  it  has  the  appearance  of 
a  compound  animal — a  rat  with  the  legs  of  a  bird,  in  the  flyingpos- 
Uire.  Its  fore  feet  are  so  extremely  short,  that  they  are  only  used 
like  the  ape's  and  the  squirrel's,  as  hands  to  convey  its  food  to  its 
mouth,  and  like  the  rabbit,  to  dig  a  subterraneous  habitation ;  but 
the  hind  legs  are  long,  and  so  very  nimble,  that  it  hops  like  a  bird, 
and  with  so  much  activity,  that  it  can  scarcely  be  run  down  by  a 
greyhound. 

The  head  and  mouth  of  the  jerboa  resemble  those  of  the  hare, 
but  are  different  from  that  animal,  by  having-  only  two  incisors. 
The  body  is  short,  and  having  a  tail  nearly  about  the  same  length, 
has  caused  it  to  receive  the  appellation  of  a  rat.  Its  back  and  sides 
being  of  an  ashy  color,  with  blueish  stripes,  may  be  called  a  sorrel 
color.  It  is  eaten  in  Egypt,  and  is  esteemed  very  palatable ;  its 
skin  is  used  as  a  common,  though  a  beautiful  kind  of  fur. 

The  reader  is  doubtless  familiar  with  the  account  of  the  great  de- 
vastation occasioned  in  the  land  of  Philistia  by  this  little  animal, 
(1  Sam.  vi.),  after  its  inhabitants  had  taken  the  ark  of  the  Divine 
presence,  and  placed  it  in  the  vicinity  of  the  idolatrous  symbols  of 
worship.  Nor  is  this  the  only  instance  on  record  in  which  it  has 
made  considerable  ravages  in  that  neighborhood. 


THE    MOLE 


THIS  curious  little  quadruped  seems  formed  to  live  wholly  under 
the  earth,  as  if  the  supreme  Being  meant  that  no  place  should  be 
left  wholly  untenanted.  Were  we,  from  our  own  sensations  to 
pronounce  upon  the  life  of  an  animal  that  was  never  to  appear 
above  ground,  but  be  always  condemned  to  hunt  for  its  prey  under- 
death,  and  obliged,  whenever  it  removed  from  one  place  to  another, 
to  bore  its  way  through  a  resisting  body,  we  should  be  apt  to  assert 
that  such  an  existence  must  be  the  most  frightful  and  solitary  in 


116  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

nature.  In  the  mole,  however,  though  condemned  to  all  these 
seeming  inconveniences,  we  discover  no  signs  of  wretchedness  or 
distress.  No  quadruped  is  latter,  none  has  a  more  sleek  or  glossy 
skin  ;  and,  though  denied  many  advantages  that  most  animals  en- 
joy, it  is  more  liberally  possessed  of  others,  which  they  have  in  a 
more  scanty  proportion. 

The  size  of  the  mole  is  between  that  of  the  rat  and  the  mouse  ; 
but  it  in  no  way  resembles  either,  being  an  animal  entirely  of  a  sin- 
gular kind,  and  perfectly  unlike  any  other  quadruped  whatever. 
Its  nose  is  long  and  pointed,  resembling  that  of  a  hog,  but  much 
longer.  Its  eyes  are  so  small  that  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  discern 
them  ;  and  instead  of  ears  it  has  only  holes  in  the  place.  Its  neck 
is  so  short  that  the  head  seems  stuck  upon  the  shoulders.  The 
body  is  thick  and  round,  terminating  by  a  very  small  short  tail,  and 
its  legs  also  are  so  short,  that  the  animal  seems  to  lie  flat  on  its  belly. 
Thus  it  appears  to  us,  at  first  view,  as  a  mass  of  flesh  covered  with 
a  fine  shining  black  skin,  with  a  little  head,  and  scarce  any  eyes, 
legs,  or  tail.  The  ancients  and  some  of  the  moderns  were  of  opin- 
ion, jhat  the  mole  was  utterly  blind ;  but  Derham,  by  the  help  of  a 
microscope,  plainly  discovered  all  parts  of  the  eye  that  are  known, 
in  other  animals.  The  smallness  of  its  eyes,  which  induced  the 
ancients  to  think  it  blind,  is  to  the  animal  a  peculiar  advantage.  A 
small  degree  of  vision  is  sufficient  for  a  creature  that  is  destined  to 
live  in  darkness :  a  more  extensive  sight  would  only  have  served  to 
show  the  horrors  of  its  prison,  while  nature  had  denied  it  the  means 
of  escape.  Had  this  organ  been  larger,  it  would  have  been  perpet- 
ually liable  to  injuries,  by  the  falling  of  the  earth  into  it;  but  na- 
ture, to  prevent  that  inconvenience,  has  not  only  made  them  very 
small,  but  has  also  covered  them  with  hair.  Besides  these  advan- 
tages, anatomists  mention  another,  that  contributes  to  its  security  ; 
namely,  a  certain  muscle,  by  which  the  animal  can  draw  back  the 
eye  whenever  it  is  necessary,  or  in  danger.  Indeed,  the  whole  fig- 
ure and  formation  of  the  mole  is  most  admirably  adapted  to  its. 
manner  of  living,  and  strikingly  illustrates  the  wisdom  and  skill  of 
the  Almighty  Creator. 


THE  BAT.  117 

THE     BAT. 


THIS  singular  creature,  which  possesses  properties  that  connect 
it  with  both  beasts  and  birds,  has  been  variously  placed  in  systems 
of  natural  history.  The  editor  of  Calmet,  says,  *  it  is  too  much  a 
bird  to  be  properly  a  beast,  and  too  much  a  beast  to  be  properly  a 
bird.'  Doubts  as  to  its  nature,  however,  no  longer  exist.  The  bat 
is  now  universally  made  to  take  its  place  among  the  animal  tribes, 
to  which  the  bringing  forth  its  young  alive,  its  hair,  its  teeth,  as 
well  as  the  rest  of  its  habitudes  and  conformation,  evidently  entitles 
it.  In  no  particular,  scarcely,  does  it  resemble  a  bird,  except  in  its 
power  of  sustaining  itself  in  the  air,  which  circumstance  is  scarcely 
enough  to  balance  the  weight  of  those  particulars  which  we  have 
noticed,  as  placing  it  among  quadrupeds. 

The  Hebrew  name  of  the  bat  denotes  *  the  flier  in  duskiness,'  i.  e. 
the  evening.  It  was  similarly  named  by  the  Greeks  and  the  Latins. 
In  Deut,  xiv.  18,  19,  it  is  well  described  :  <  Moreover  the  bat,  and 
every  creeping  thing  thatjlieth,  is  unclean  to  you :  they  shall  not  be 
eaten.' 

The  legs  of  the  bat  are  formed  in  a  very  particular  manner,  and 
entirely  different  from  any  other  animal.  It  creeps  with  the  instru- 
ments of  its  flight.  During  the  entire  winter,  it  conceals  itself  in  its 
hole,  as  it  does,  also,  during  the  day  time  even  in  summer,  never 
venturing  out,  except  for  an  hour  or  two  in  the  evening,  in  order  to 
supply  itself  with  food.  The  usual  place  in  which  it  takes  up  its 
abode  is  the  hollow  of  a  tree,  a  dark  cavern,  or  the  chink  of  some 
ruined  building,  of  which  it  seems  particularly  fond.  This  illus- 
trates Isaiah,  ii.  20:  'In  that  day,  a  man  shall  cast  his  idols  of  sil- 
ver and  his  idols  of  gold  to  the  moles  and  to  the  bats : '  that  is,  he 
shall  carry  his  idols  into  the  dark  caverns,  old  ruins,  or  desolate 
places,  to  which  he  himself  shall  flee  for  refuge;  and  so  shall  give 
them  up,  and  relinquish  them  to  the  filthy  animals  that  frequent 
such  places,  and  have  taken  possession  of  them  as  their  proper  hab- 
itation. 


SECTION   IV. 
DUBIOUS   ANIMALS 

THE   BEHEMOTH 


THE  animal  denoted  by  this  appellation  in  the  book  of  Job,  has 
been  variously  determined  by  learned  men  ;  some  of  whom,  espe- 
cially the  early  Christian  writers  and  the  Jewish  rabbins,  have  in- 
dulged in  sufficiently  extravagant  notions.  To  detail  these  would 
3be  useless,  and  we  shall  therefore  pass  them  over  in  silence. 

The  late  editor  of  Cal met,  whose  extensive  learning  and  indefati- 
gable industry  will  always  entitle  him  to  respectful  attention,  not- 
withstanding his  love  of  fanciful  conjecture,  has  well  remarked,  that 
'the  author  of  the  book  of  Job  has"  evidently  taken  great  pains  in 
delineating  highly  finished  and  poetical  pictures  of  two  remarkable 
animals,  BEHEMOTH  and  LEVIATHAN:  these  he  reserves  to  close  his 
descriptions  of  animated  nature,  and  with  these  he  terminates  the 
climax  of  that  discourse,  which  he  puts  into  the  mouth  of  the  AL- 
MIGHTY. He  even  interrupts  that  discourse,  and  separates,  as  it 
were,  by  that  interruption,  these  surprising  creatures  from  those 
which  he  had  described  before;  and  he  descants  on  them  in  a  man- 
ner which  demonstrates  the  poetic  animation  with  which  he  wrote. 
The  leviathan  is  described  at  a  still  greater  length  than  the  behe- 


THE  BEHEMOTH.  119 

moth  ;  and  the  two  evidently  appear  to  he  presented  as  compan- 
ions ;  to  be  reserved  as  fellows  and  associates.'  Mr.  Taylor  then 
proceeds  to  enquire  what  were  the  creatures  most  likely  to  be 
cornpanionized  and  associated  in  early  ages,  and  in  countries  bor- 
dering on  Egypt,  where  the  scene  of  this  poem  is  placed  ;  and  from 
the  '  Antiquities  of  Herculaneum,'  the  '  Prrenestine  Pavement,'  and 
the  famous  'Statue  of  the  Nile,' he  shows  these  to  have  been  the 
CROCODILE — now  generally  admitted  to  be  the  leviathan,  and  ^the 
HIPPOPOTAMUS,  or  river-horse. 

'After  these  authorities,' he  remarks,  '  I  think  we  may  without 
hesitation,  conclude,  that  this  association  was  not  rare  or  uncom- 
mon, but  that  it  really  was  the  customary  manner  of  thinking,  and 
consequently,  of  speaking,  in  ancient  times,  and  in  the  countries 
where  these  creatures  were  native ;  we  may  add,  that  being  well 
known  in  Egypt,  and  being,  in  some  degree,  popular  objects  of 
Egy plain  pride,  distinguishing  natives  of  that  country,  for  their 
magnitude  and  character,  they  could  not  escape  the  notice  of  any 
curious  naturalist,  or  writer  on  natural  history;  so,  that  to  suppose 
they  were  omitted  in  this  part  of  the  book  of  Job,  would  be  to  sup- 
pose a  blemish  in  the  book,  implying  a  deficiency  in  the  author : 
and  if  they  are  inserted,  no  other  description  can  be  that  of  the  hip- 
popotamus.' 

Aristotle  represents  the  hippopotamus  to  be  of  the  size  of  an  ass; 
Herodotus  affirms  that  in  stature  he  is  equal  to  the  largest  ox ;  Di- 
odorus  makes  his  height  not  less  than  five  cubits,  or  above  seven 
feet  and  a  half;  and  Tatius  calls  him,  on  account  of  his  prodigious 
strength,  the  Egyptain  elephant.  Captain  Beaver  thus  describes 
one  which  he  met  with  in  Western  Africa :  *  The  animal  was  not 
swimming,  but  standing  in  the  channel,  in,  I  suppose,  about  five 
feet  water :  the  body  immerged,  and  the  head  just  above  it.  It  looked 
steadfastly  at  the  boat  till  we  were  within  ahout  twenty  yards  of  it, 
when  I  lodged  a  ball  half  way  between  its  eyes  and  nostrils :  it  im- 
mediately tumbled  down,  but  instantly  rose  again,  snorted,  and  walk- 
ed into  shallower  water,  where  I  had  an  opportunity  of  seeing  its 
whole  body,  and  than  discovered  that  it  was  an  hippopotamus.  It 
afterwards  advanced  a  little  towards  the  boat,  then  towards  the 
shore,  and  turned  entirely  round,  once  or  twice,  as  if  at  a  loss  what 
to  do,  plunging  violently  the  whole  time.  At  last  it  walked  into 
deeper  water,  and  then  dived :  we  watched  its  rising,  and  then  pur- 
sued it ;  and  this  we  did  for  near  three  hours,  when,  at  length  it 
landed  on  a  narrow  neck  of  sand,  and  walked  over  it  into  fifteen  or 
sixteen  fathoms  of  water.  We  then  gave  up  the  pursuit,  having 
never  been  able  to  get  a  second  shot  at  it.  The  longest  time  it  was 
under  water  during  the  pursuit,  was  twenty  minutes,  but  immedi- 
ately after  being  wounded  it  rose  every  three  or  four  minutes.  Its 
body  appeared  to  be  somewhut  larger  than  that  of  the  largest  buf- 
faloe,  with  shorter  but  much  thicker  legs ;  a  head  much  resembling 
a  horse's,  but  longer ;  large  projecting  eyes ;  open  and  wide  distend- 
ed nostrils ;  short  erect  ears,  like  a  cropt  horse  when  it  pricks  them 


120  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

up,  or  those  of  a  well-cropped  terrier.  I  perceived  nothing  like  a 
mane,  and  the  skin  appeared  to  be  without  hair ;  but  of  this  I  am 
not  certain,  for  being  totally  ignorant  whether  the  animal  was  fe- 
rocious or  not,  immediately  after  I  fired,  we  rowed  from  it,  expect- 
ing it  would  attack  us.' 

In  Job  xl.  17,  38,  the  sacred  writer  conveys  a  striking  idea  of  the 
bulk,  vigor,  and  strength  of  the  behemoth. 

lie  moveth  his  tail  like  a  cedar : 

The  sinews  of  his  thighs  are  interwoven  together. 

His  ribs  are  as  strong  pieces  of  copper ; 

His  backbone  like  bars  of  iron. 

The  idea  of  his  prodigious  might  is  increased  by  the  account 
given  of  his  bones,  which  are  compared  to  strong  pieces  of  brass, 
and  bars  of  iron.  Such  figures  are  commonly  employed  by  the 
sacred  writers,  to  express  great  hardness  and  strength,  of  which  a 
striking  example  occurs  in  the  prophecy  of  Micah  :  *  Arise  and 
thresh,  O  daughter  of  Zion  ;  for  I  will  make  thy  horn  iron,  and  I 
will  make  thy  hoofs  brass :  and  thou  shalt  beat  in  pieces  many  peo- 
ple, Micah  iv.  33 — so  hard  and  strong  are  the  bones  of  the  behe- 
moth. 

He  is  chief  of  the  works  of  God. 

He  that  made  him  has  fixed  his  weapon. 

Here  he  is  described  as  one  of  the  noblest  animals  which  the  Al- 
mighty Creator  has  produced.  The  male  hippopotamus  which 
Zernighi  brought  from  the  Nile  to  Italy,  was  sixteen  feet  nine  inches 
long,  from  the  extremity  of  the  muzzle  to  the  origin  of  the  tail ;  fif- 
teen feet  in  circumference  ;  and  six  feet  and  a  half  high  ;  and  the 
legs  were  about  two  feet  ten  inches  long.  The  head  was  three 
feet  and  a  half  in  length,  and  eight  feet  and  a  half  in  circumference. 
The  opening  of  the  mouth  was  two  feet  four  inches,  and  the  largest 
teeth  were  more  than  a  foot  long. 

Thus,  his  prodigious  strength  ;  his  impenetrable  skin  ;  and  vast 
opening  of  his  mouth,  and  his  portentous  voracity ;  the  whiteness 
and  hardness  of  his  teeth  ;  his  manner  of  life,  spent  with  equal  ease 
in  the  sea,  on  the  land,  or  at  the  bottom  of  the  Nile, — equally  claim 
our  admiration,  and  entitle  him,  says  Paxton,  to  be  considered  as 
the  chief  of  the  ways  of  God.  Nor  is  he  less  remarkable  for  his 
sagacity  ;  of  which  two  instances  are  recorded  by  Pliny  and  Solinus. 
After  he  has  gorged  himself  with  corn,  and  begins  to  return  with  a 
distended  belly  to  the  deep,  with  averted  steps  he  traces  a  great 
many  paths,  lest  his  pursuers,  following  the  lines  of  one  plain  track, 
should  overtake  and  destroy  him  while  he  is  unable  to  resist.  The 
second  instance  is  not  less  remarkable  :  when  he  has  become  fat 
with  too  much  indulgence,  he  reduces  his  obesity  by  copious  bleed- 
ings. For  this  purpose,  he  searches  for  newly  cut  reeds,  or  sharp 
pointed  rocks,  and  rubs  himself  against  them  till  he  makes  a  suf- 
ficient aperture  for  the  blood  to  flow.  To  promote  the  discharge, 
it  is  said,  he  agitates  his  body  ;  and  when  he  thinks  he  has  lost  a 


THE  LEVIATHAN.  121 

sufficient  quantity,  he  closes  the  wound  by  rolling  himself  in  the 
mud. 

In  compliance  with  the  prevailing  opinion,  which  refers  this  de- 
scription to  the  hippopotamus,  we  have  thought  it  right  to  exhibit 
some  of  the  points  of  resemblance  which  have  been  discovered  be- 
tween that  creature  and  the  behemoth  of  the  book  of  Job.  We 
much  doubt,  however,  the  identity  of  the  animals,  and  are  more  in- 
clined to  think,  with  Drs.  Good  and  Clarke,  that  the  sacred  writer 
refers  to  an  animal  of  an  extinct  genus.  Dr.  Clarke  believes  it  to 
have  been  the  mastodanton  or  mammoth,  some  part  of  a  skeleton  of 
which  he  has  carefully  examined,  and  thus  described  in  his  com- 
mentary on  Gen.  i.  24.  « The  mammoth  for  size  will  answer  the 
description  in  verse  19 :  *  He  is  the  chief  of  the  ways  of  God.' 
That  to  which  the  part  of  a  skeleton  belonged,  which  I  examined, 
must  have  been,  by  computation,  not  less  than  twenty-Jive  feet  high, 
and  sixty  feet  in  length !  The  bones  of  one  toe  I  measured,  and 
found  them  three  feet  in  length  !  One  of  the  very  smallest  grinders 
of  an  animal  of  this  extinct  species,  full  of  processes  on  the  surface, 
more  than  an  inch  in  depth,  which  showed  that  the  animal  had  liv- 
ed on  flesh,  I  have  just  now  weighed,  and  found  it,  in  its  very  dry 
state,  four  pounds  eight  ounces,  avoirdupoise :  the  same  grinder  of 
an  elephant  I  have  weighed  also,  and  find  it  just  two  pounds.  The 
mammoth,  therefore,  from  this  proportion  must  have  been  as  large 
as  two  elephants  and  a  quarter.  We  may  judge  by  this  of  its  size ; 
elephants  are  frequently  ten  and  eleven  feet  high:  this  will  make  the 
mammoth  at  least  twenty-Jive  or  twenty-six  feet  high ;  and  as  it  ap- 
pears to  have  been  a  many-toed  animal,  the  springs  which  such  a 
creature  could  make,  must  have  been  almost  incredible :  nothing 
by  siciftness  could  have  escaped  its  pursuit.  God  seems  to  have 
made  it  as  the  proof  of  his  power;  and  had  it  been  prolific,  and  not 
become  extinct,  it  would  have  depopulated  the  earth.  Creatures 
of  this  kind  must  have  been  living  in  the  days  of  Job :  the  behemoth 
is  referred  to  here,  as  if  perfectly  commonly  known.' 


THE    LEVIATHAN, 

THE  word  Leviathan  occurs  only  in  four  passages  of  scripture,  in 
addition  to  that  very  sublime  description  which  is  furnished  of  the 
creature  to  which  the  appellation  is  given,  in  the  forty-first  chapter 
of  the  book  of  Job — a  description  in  the  highest  degree  poetical, 
and,  in  the  minutest  particular,  just.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that 
the  same  creature  is  elsewhere  called  Tan  and  Tannin,  which 
words  are  variously  rendered  whale,  dragon,  serpent,  and  sea-mon- 
ster;  a  diversity  of  translation  sanctioned  by  the  original  penmen, 


123  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

who  use  the  words  to  describe  these,  and  perhaps  several  other 
large  animals  in  addition  to  them,  among  which  is  the  crocodile, 
who  is  more  particularly  marked  out,  by  the  term  LEVIATHAN. 

'The  main  proof  that  the  leviathan  is  the  crocodile  of  the  Nile,' 
says  Mr.  Vansittart,  'arises  chiefly  from  some  particular  circumstan- 
ces and  contingencies  attending  the  crocodiles  of  JEgypt,  and  of  no 
other  country  ;  and  if  these  circumstances  are  such,  that  we  can 
suppose  the  Hebrew  writer  drew  his  ideas  from  them  in  his  de- 
scription of  leviathan,  they  will  afford  an  almost  certainty  that  levi- 
nthan  represents  the  crocodile  of  the  Nile.'  The  writer  then  quotes 
a  passage  from  Herodotus,  where  the  historian  describes  this  ani- 
mal, and  relates  the  peculiarities  attendant  upon  him  in  parts  of 
Egypt ;  remarking,  that '  some  of  the  Egyptians  hold  the  crocodile 
sacred,  particularly  the  inhabitants  of  Thebes,  and  others  bordering 
upon  the  lake  Mceris,  who  breed  up  a  single  crocodile,  adorn  him 
with  rings  and  bracelets,  feed  him  with  the  sacred  food  appointed 
for  him,  and  treat  him  with  the  most  honorable  distinction.'  With 
much  ingenuity,  he  then  proceeds  to  illustrate  the  description  in  the 
book  of  Job,  and  to  consider  it  as  strongly  indicating  the  peculiari- 
ties of  the  Thebaid  crocodile. 

The  description  of  leviathan  commences  at  the  twelfth  verse,  and 
is  divided  into  three  parts,  classed  under  the  different  heads  of,  (1.) 
his  parts;  (2.)  his  great  might ;  (3.)  his  well-armed  make.  Of  these, 
the  first  and  the  third  describe  him  as  truly  as  a  naturalist  would 
do.  The  second  part  magnifies  him  as  a  god. 

It  is  difficult,  perhaps  impossible,  to  find  a  description  so  admi- 
rably sustained  in  any  language  of  any  age  or  country.  The  whole 
appears  to  be  of  a  piece,  and  equally  excellent. 

To  stir  up  or  awake  leviathan  is  represented,  in  chap.  xli.  8 — 10 
of  the  same  book,  to  be  inevitable  destruction.  It  was  natural  to 
mention  such  a  terrible  casualty  in  the  strongest  terms  of  abhor- 
rence, and  to  lament  those  who  so  miserably  perished  with  the  most 
bitter  imprecations  on  the  disastrous  day.  Job  calls  for  the  assist- 
ance of  such  language,  to  execrate  the  fatal  night  of  his  nativity. 

By  the  term  leviathan,  in  Psalm  Ixxiv.  14,  we  may  suppose  Pha- 
raoh to  be  represented,  as  a  king  of  Egypt  is  called  by  Ezekiel 
(chap.  xxix.  3)  '  the  great  dragon  [or  crocodile]  that  lieth  in  the 
miust  of  his  rivers.' 


THE    UNICORN. 

IT  would  be  o'f  little  advantage  to  the  reader,  were  we  td  detail 
the  various  opinions  entertained  relative  to  the  identity  of  the  ani- 
mal designated  the  UNICOKN,  in  our  translation  of  the  Bible.  The 
oryx,  a  species  of  the  wild  goat ;  the  urus,  a  species  of  the  wild  bull ; 


THE  UNICORN.  123 

a  species  of  the  antelope,  or  deer;  and  the  single,  and  double  horn- 
ed rhinoceros,  have  each  had  their  able  advocates,  as  being  the 
RE  EM  of  sacred  writ. 

From  the  circumstance  of  our  having  associated  this  creature 
with  i  dubious  animals,'  it  will  of  course  be  inferred,  that  some  diffi- 
culty exists  in  identifying  it  with  any  known  animal.  Such  is  the 
fact ;  for  while  there  are  points  of  resemblance  between  the  REEM, 
as  described  in  scripture,  and  each  of  the  animals  above  mentioned, 
there  are  considerations  that  seem  to  render  it  doubtful  whether 
any  one  of  them  is  precisely  the  same  animal  as  that  described  by 
the  sacred  penmen. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  remark,  that  the  unicorn,  as  represented 
by  poets  and  painters,  has  never  been  found  in  nature,  and  never, 
perhaps,  had  an  existence  but  in  the  imagination  of  the  one,  and  oil 
the  canvass  of  the  other.  But  before  we  proceed  to  inquire  what 
creature  is  denoted  by  the  Hebrew  mm,  it  will  be  well  to  ascertain 
its  precise  character,  by  a  careful  examination  of  those  passages  in 
which  it  is  mentioned.  The  first  allusion  to  it,  is  in  the  reply  of 


xxiv.  8.  From  this  it  is  evident,  that  the  REEM  was  conceived  to 
possess  very  considerable  power.  With  this  idea  corresponds  the 
passage  in  Isaiah,  where  the  prophet  associates  him  with  other  pow- 
erful animals,  to  symbolize  the  leaders  and  princes  of  the  hostile 
nation  that  were  destined  to  desolate  his  country:  'And  the  uni- 
corns shall  come  down  with  them,  and  the  bullocks  with  the  bulls; 
and  their  land  shall  be  soaked  with  blood,  and  their  dust  made  fat 
with  fatness,'  ch.  xxxiv.  7.  From  the  book  of  Job  we  learn,  that  it 
was  not  only  an  animal  of  considerable  strength,  but  also  an  animal 
of  a  very  fierce  and  intractable  disposition :  'Will  the  unicorn  be 
willing  to  eerve  thee,  or  abide  by  thy  crib  ?  Canst  thou  bind  the 
unicorn  with  his  band  in  the  furrow  ?  or  will  he  harrow  the  valleys 
after  thee  ?  Wilt  thou  trust  him,  because  his  strength  is  great  ?  or 
wilt  thou  leave  thy  labor  to  him  ?  Wilt  thou  believe  him,  that  he 
will  bring  home  thy  seed,  and  gather  it  into  thy  barn  ? '  ch.  xxxix. 
9 — 12.  Another  particular  we  collect  from  Psalm  xcii.  10  ;  name- 
ly, that  the  animal  possesses  a  single  horn, and  that  in  an  erect  pos- 
ture, unlike  other  horned  animals :  '  My  horn  shalt  thou  exalt  like 
the  horn  of  an  unicorn  ;'  while  it  is  evident  from  the  following  pas- 
sage, that  it  was  sometimes  found  with  more  horns  than  one.  '  His 
[Joseph's]  horns  are  like  the  horns  of  an  unicorn,'  Deut.  xxxiii.  17. 
These  are  all  the  passages,  except  two,  in  which  the  Reem  is  men- 
tioned in  scripture  :  these  are  Psalms  xxii.  21,  and  xxix.  6.  From 
the  former  of  these  passages,  we  are  unable  to  gather  any  addition^ 
al  information,  and  the  latter  will  add  but  little  to  our  former  stock : 
'  He  maketh  them  also  to  skip  like  a  calf;  Lebanon  and  Siriori  like 
a  young  unicorn.' 
We  are  now  better  prepared  to  examine  into  the  validity  of  the 


124  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

claims  that  have  been  advanced  in  favor  of  those  animals  which  are 
supposed  to  be  the  reem  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures.  Let  us  first 
hear  Mr.  Bruce. 

'It  is  very  remarkable,'  says  this  distinguished  traveller,  'that  two 
such  animals  as  the  elephant  and  the  rhinoceros  should  have  whol- 
ly escaped  the  description  of  the  sacred  writers.  Moses  and  the 
children  of  Israel  were  long  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  countries 
which  produced  them  both,  while  in  Egypt  and  in  Arabia.  The 
classing  of  the  animals  into  clean  and  unclean  seems  to  have  led 
the  legislator  into  a  kind  of  necessity  of  describing,  in  one  of  the 
classes,  an  animal  which  made  the  food  of  the  principal  pagan  na- 
tions in  the  neighborhood.  Considering  the  long  and  intimate  con- 
nexion Solomon  had  with  the  south  coast  of  the  Red  Sea,  it  is  next 
to  impossible  that  he  was  not  acquainted  with  them,  as  both  David 
his  father,  and  he  himself,  made  plentiful  use  of  ivory,  as  they  fre- 
quently mention  in  their  writings,  which,  along  with  gold,  came 
from  the  same  parts.  Solomon,  besides,  wrote  expressly  on  Zool- 
ogy, and  we  can  scarce  suppose  he  was  ignorant  of  two  of  the  prin- 
cipal articles  of  that  part  of  the  creation,  inhabitants  of  the  great 
continent  of  Asia  east  from  him,  and  that  of  Africa  on  the  south, 
with  both  which  territories  he  was  in  constant  correspondence. 

'  There  are  two  animals  named  frequently  in  scripture  without 
naturalists  being  agreed  what  they  are.  The  one  is  the  behemoth, 
the  other  the  reem ;  both  mentioned  as  types  of  strength,  courage, 
and  independence  on  man  ;  and,  as  such,  exempted  from  the  ordi- 
nary lot  of  beasts,  to  be  subdued  by  him,  or  reduced  under  his  do- 
minion. Though  this  is  not  to  be  taken  in  a  literal  sense, — for  there 
is  no  animal  without  the  fear  or  beyond  the  reach  of  the  power  of 
man, — we  are  to  understand  it  of  animals  possessed  of  strength  and 
size  so  superlative,  as  that  in  these  qualities  other  beasts  bear  no 
proportion  to  them.' 

The  behemoth  Mr.  Bruce  takes  to  be  the  elephant,  in  which  we 
differ  from  him;  and  the  reem  he  argues  to  be  the  rhinoceros,  from 
the  following  considerations. 

The  derivation  of  the  word,  both  in  Hebrew  and  Ethiopic,  seems 
to  be  from  erectness  or  standing  straight.  This  is  certainly  no  paix 
ticular  quality  in  the  animal  itself,  who  is  not  more,  or  even  so 
much  erect  as  many  other  quadrupeds,  for  its  knees  are  rather 
crooked  ;  but  it  is  from  the  circumstance  and  manner  in  which  his 
horn  is  placed.  The  horns  of  all  other  animals  are  inclined  to  some 
Degree  of  parallelism  with  the  nose,  or  os  frontis.  The  horn  of  the 
rhinoceros  alone  is  erect  or  perpendicular  to  this  bone,  on  which  it 
stands  at  right  angles ;  thereby  possessing  a  greater  purchase  or 
power,  as  a  lever,  than  any  horn  could  possibly  have  in  any  other 
position. 

This  situation  of  the  horn  is  veiy  happily  alluded  to  in  the  sacred 
writings :  *  My  horn  shalt  thou  exalt  like  the  horn  of  a  reem,'  Psalm 
xcii.  10.  And  the  horn  here  alluded  to  is  not  wholly  figurative,  but 
was  really  an  ornament  worn  by  great  men  in  the  days  of  victory. 


THE  UNICORN.  125 

preferment,  or  rejoicing,  when  they  were  anointed  with  new,  sweet, 
or  fresh  oil :  a  circumstance  which  David  joins  with  that  of  erect- 
ing the  horn. 

It  is  difficult  to  imagine  why  some  writers  have  been  induced  to 
consider  the  unicorn  as  being  of  the  deer  or  antelope  kind,  since  this 
is  of  a  genus,  whose  very  character  is  fear  and  weakness,  quite  oppo- 
site, as  Mr.  Bruce  remarks,  to  the  qualities  by  which  the  REEM  is  de- 
scribed in  scripture.  Besides  it  is  plain  that  the  reem  is  not  of  the  class 
of  clean  quadrupeds  ;  and  a  late  modern  traveller  very  whimsically 
takes  him  for  the  leviathan,  which  certainly  was  a  fish.  Balaam,  a 
priest  of  Midian,  and  so  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  haunts  of  the 
rhinoceros,  and  intimately  connected  with  Ethiopia  (for  they  them- 
selves were  shepherds  of  that  country),  in  a  transport,  from  contem- 
plating the  strength  of  Israel  whom  he  was  brought  to  curse,  says, 
they  had  as  it  were  '  the  strength  of  the  reem,'  Numbers  xxiii.  22. 
Job  makes  frequent  allusions  to  his  great  strength,  ferocity,  and  in- 
docility,  ch.  xxxix.  9, 10.  He  asks,  *  Will  the  reem  be  willing  to 
serve  thee,  or  to  abide  at  thy  crib  ? '  That  is,  will  he  willingly  come 
into  thy  stable,  and  eat  at  thy  manger?  and  again:  'Canst  thou 
bind  the  reem  with  a  band  in  the  furrow,  and  will  he  harrow  the 
valleys  after  thee  ?'  In  other  words,  canst  thou  make  him  to  go  in 
the  plough  or  harrow? 

Isaiah  (ch.  xxxiv.  7),  who  of  all  the  prophets,  seems  to  have 
known  Egypt  and  Ethiopia  the  best,  when  prophesying  about  the 
destruction  of  Idamea,  says,  that  'the  reem  shall  come  down  witii 
the  fat  cattle :'  a  proof  that  he  knew  his  habitation  was  in  the  neigh- 
borhood. In  the  same  manner  as  when  foretelling  the  desolation 
of  Egypt,  he  mentions  as  one  manner  of  effecting  it,  the  bringing 
down  the  fly  from  Ethiopia,  to  meet  the  cattle  in  the  desert  and 
among  the  bushes,  and  destroy  them  there,  where  that  insect  did 
not  ordinarily  come  but  on  commands  (comp.  Isaiah  vii.  18,  19 ; 
and  Exodus  viii.  22),  and  where  the  cattle  feed  every  year,  to  save 
themselves  from  that  insect. 

The  principal  reason  for  translating  the  word  reem,  unicorn,  and 
not  rhinoceros,  is  from  a  prejudice  that  he  must  have  but  one  horn. 
But  this  is  by  no  means  so  well  founded,  as  to  be  admitted  an 
argument  for  establishing  the  existence  of  an  animal  which  never 
has  appeared  after  the  search  of  so  many  ages.  Scripture,  as  we 
have  seen,  speaks  of  the  horns  of  the  unicorn;  so  that,  even  from 
this  circumstance,  the  reem  may  be  the  rhinoceros,  as  the  Asiatic 
and  part  of  the  African  rhinoceros  may  be  the  unicorn. 

In  addition  to  these  particulars,  Mr.  Bruce  informs  us,  that  the 
rhinoceros  does  not  eat  hay  or  grass,  but  lives  entirely  upon  trees ; 
he  does  not  spare  the  most  thorny  ones,  but  rather  seems  to  be  fond 
of  them ;  and  it  is  not  a  small  branch  that  can  escape  his  hunger, 
for  he  has  the  strongest  jaws  of  any  creature  known,  and  best  adapt- 
ed to  grinding  or  bruising  any  thing  that  makes  resistance.  But, 
besides,  the  trees  capable  of  most  resistance,  there  are  in  the  vast 
forests  which  he  inhabits,  trees  of  a  softer  consistence,  and  of  a 
11* 


126  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

very  succulent  quality,  which  seem  to  be  destined  for  his  principal 
food.  For  the  purpose  of  gaining  the  highest  branches  of  these, 
his  upper  lip  is  capable  of  being  lengthened  out.  so  as  to  increase 
his  power  of  laying  hold  with  this,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  ele- 
phant does  with  his  trunk.  With  this  lip,  and  the  assistance  of  his 
tongue,  he  pulls  down  the  upper  branches,  which  have  most  leaves,, 
and  these  he  devours  first;  having  stript  the  tree  of  its  branches,  he 
does  not  therefore  abandon  it,  but  placing  his  snout  as  low  in  the 
trunk  as  he  finds  his  horn  will  enter,  he  rips  up  the  body  of  the 
tree,  and  reduces  it  to  thin  pieces,  like  so  many  laths ;  and  when  he 
has  thus  prepared  it,  he  embraces  as  much  of  it  as  he  can  in  his 
monstrous  jaws,  and  twists  it  with  as  much  ease  as  an  ox  would  do 
a  root  of  celery. 

Such  is  the  description  which  this  intelligent  writer  gives  of  the 
animal  he  supposes  to  be  thereem  of  the  sacred  writers ;  and  the  ob- 
jections urged  against  his  opinion  possess  very  little  weight.  Those 
who  desire  to  see  them  examined  and  refuted,  may  find  it  done  in 
the  Natural  Histoiy  of  the  Fragments  to  Calmet. 

Next  to  the  elephant,  the  rhinoceros  is  said  to  be  the  most  pow- 
erful of  animals.  It  is  usually  found  twelve  feet  long,  from  the  tip 
of  the  nose  to  the  insertion  of  the  tail ;  from  six  to  seven  feet  high  ; 
and  the  circumference  of  its  body  is  nearly  equal  to  its  length.  It 
is,  therefore,  equal  to  the  elephant  in  bulk  ;  and  the  reason  of  its  ap- 
pearing so  much  smaller  to  the  eye  than  that  animal,  is,  that  its  legs 
are  much  shorter.  Words,  says  Goldsmith,  can  convey  but  a  very 
confused  idea  of  this  animal's  shape ;  and  yet  there  are  few  so  re- 
markably formed.  But  for  its  horn,  which  we  have  already  de- 
scribed, its  head  would  have  the  appearance  of  that  part  of  a  hog. 
The  skin  of  the  rhinoceros  is  naked,  rough,  knotty,  and  lying  upon 
the  body  in  folds,  in  a  very  peculiar  manner ;  the  skin,  which  is  of 
a  dirty  brown  color,  is  so  thick  as  to  turn  the  edge  of  a  scimitar,  and 
to  resist  a  musket-ball. 

Such  is  the  general  description  of  an  animal  that  appears  chiefly 
formidable  from  the  horn  growing  from  its  snout ;  and  formed, 
rather  for  war,  than  with  a  propensity  to  engage.  The  elephant, 
the  boar,  and  the  buffalo,  are  obliged  to  strike  transversely  with  their 
weapon;  but  the  rhinoceros,  from  tho  situation  of  his  horn,  employs 
all  his  force  with  every  blow  ;  so  that  the  tiger  will  more  willingly 
attack  any  other  animal  of  the  forest  than  one  whose  strength  is  so 
justly  employed.  Indeed,  there  is  no  force  which  this  terrible  ani- 
mal has  to  apprehend :  defended  on  every  side  by  a  thick  horny 
hide,  which  the  claws  of  the  lion  or  the  tiger  are  unable  to  pierce, 
and  armed  before  with  a  weapon  that  the  elephant  does  not  choose 
to  oppose.  Travellers  have  assured  us,  that  the  elephant  is  often 
found  dead  in  the  forests,  pierced  with  the  horn  of  a  rhinoceros. 


CHAPTER    III, 


BIRDS, 

WE  now  advance  to  one  of  the  most  beautiful  and  numerous 
parts  of  animated  nature.  A  few  introductory  observations  may  be 
permitted,  before  we  proceed  to  describe  the  several  individuals  that 
are  presented  to  our  notice,  in  reviewing  the  ornithology  of  the 
Bible. 

The  first  thing  which  claims  our  attention,  is  the  structure  of  the 
feathered  tribes.  In  a  comparative  view  with  man,  their  formation 
seems  much  ruder  and  more  imperfect ;  and  they  are  in  general 
found  incapable  of  the  docility  even  of  quadrupeds.  To  these,  how- 
ever, they  hold  the  next  rank ;  and  far  surpass  fishes  and  insects, 
both  in  the  structure  of  their  bodies,  and  in  their  sagacity. 

In  reference  to  the  structure  of  birds  of  the  most  perfect  order,  a 
few  things  demand  our  attention. 

The  whole  body  is  shaped  in  the  most  convenient  manner  for 
making  its  way  through  the  air ;  being,  as  Mr.  Ray  observes,  con- 
structed very  near  Sir  Isaac  Newton's  form  of  least  resistance. 
According  to  Barr,  in  his  continuation  of  Buffbn,  'it  is  neither  ex- 
tremely massive,  nor  equally  substantial  in  all  its  parts ;  but  being 
designed  to  rjse  in  the  air,  is'capable  of  expanding  a  large  surface 
without  solidity.  The  body  is  sharp  before,  to  pierce  and  make  its 
way  through  that  element :  it  gradually  increases  in  bulk,  till  it  has 
acquired  its  just  dimensions,  and  falls  off  in  an  expansive  tail.' 
The  motion  of  birds  being  two-fold,  walking  and  flying,  they  are 
provided  with  legs,  at  once  wonderfully  contrived  to  walk  with,  and 
raise  them  like  a  spring  for  their  flight ;  wings  to  buoy  them  up, 
and  waft  them  along ;  and  a  tail  to  keep  them  steady  in  the  air,  as- 
sist them  in  their  evolutions,  and  direct  them  in  their  course. 

Although  the  feathery  covering  of  birds  is  admirably  constructed 
for  lightness  and  buoyancy,  their  wings  are  furnished  with  a  strength 
that  is  amazing ;  and  by  these  they  are  enabled  to  impel  themselves 
forward  with  an  inconceivable  rapidity.  To  fit  them  the  better  for 
their  flight,  the  feathers  are  disposed  in  the  most  perfect  order,  ly- 
ing one  way  ;  and,  that  they  may  glide  more  smoothly  along,  they 
are  furnished  with  a  gland  situated  on  the  rump,  from  which  they 
occasionally  press  out  oil  with  the  bill,  and  anoint  the  feathers. 

Their  beak  or  bill  is  a  curious  piece  of  art,  formed  of  a  hard 
horny  substance,  constructed  in  the  most  commodious  manner  for 


130  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

piercing  the  air.  Their  ears  stand  not  out  from  their  head  to  re- 
tard their  flight ;  and  their  eyes  are  placed  in  such  situations  as  to 
take  in  nearly  a  hemisphere  on  either  side. 

Birds  have  no  teeth  to  chew  their  food ;  but  those  of  the  graniv- 
orous  kind  are  provided  with  two  stomachs,  in  one  of  which  the' 
victuals  is  softened  and  macerated  before  it  enters  the  other  to  be 
completely  digested.  Being  often  employed  in  traversing  the  upper 
regions,  where  they  would  be  much  incommoded  did  they  bring 
forth  their  young  in  the  manner  of  quadrupeds,  their  mode  of  gen- 
erating is  wisely  made  to  differ,  and  their  oifspring  are  produced 
by  means  of  eggs.  In  the  speedy  growth  of  young  birds,  by  which 
they  acquire  a  degree  of  strength  and  size,  so  as  to  be  able  so  soon 
to  provide  for  themselves,  we  have  also  an  instance  of  the  tender 
care  of  Providence. 

What  unseen  power  inspires  these  little  creatures  with  *  the  pas- 
sion of  the  groves,'  at  the  most  fit  season  for  forming  their  alliances! 
that  is,  when  the  genial  temper  of  the  weather  covers  the  trees  with 
leaves,  the  fields  with  grass,  and  produces  such  swarms  of  insects 
for  the  support  of  their  future  progeny.  And  how  comes  it  to  pass, 
that  no  sooner  is  the  connubial  league  formed,  than  the  little  warb- 
lers immediately  set  about  building  their  nests,  and  making  prepara- 
tion for  their  tender  oifspring  ?  In  the  building  of  their  nests,  what 
art  and  ingenuity  are  displayed  !  Whether  they  are  constructed 
from  the  collected  portions  of  clay  and  mortar,  or  from  the  more 
light  materials  of  moss  and  straw,  they  contrive  to  mould  them  into 
the  most  convenient  forms,  and  to  give  them  a  durability  propor- 
tionate to  their  wants.  Nor  is  the  wonder  less,  that  birds  of  the 
same  kind,  however  widely  separated,  should  all  follow  the  same 
order  of  architecture,  in  the  construction  of  their  habitations ;  that 
each  should  make  choice  of  the  situation  most  suitable  to  its  kind ; 
and  that  all  should  agree  in  laying  as  many  eggs  as  to  be  sufficient 
to  keep  up  their  species,  yet  no  more  than  they  can  conveniently 
hatch  and  bring  up. 

In  the  incubation,  with  what  patience  do  these  little  creatures  sit 
on  their  eggs  when  necessary,  till  the  young  are  ready  to  be  hatch- 
ed, and  then  how  officious  in  assisting  the  little  prisoners  to  escape  ! 
With  what  inimitable  care  do  they  afterwards  watch  over  and  pro- 
vide for  their  brood,  until  it  is  capable  of  doing  so  for  itself;  and 
with  what  scrupulous  exactness,  durin  gthis  period,  do  they  distri- 
bute to  each  its  allotted  portion  of  food ! 

The  observations  wre  have  made  are  applicable  to  the  feathery 
tribe  in  general ;  but  when  we  turn  to  the  peculiarities  of  a  few  of 
the  different  species,  we  shall  observe  that  the  wisdom  and  the 
goodness  of  God  are  no  less  conspicuous.  How  wonderful  is  the 
migration  of  some  birds;  or  that  surprising  instinct  by  which  'the 
stork  in  the  heavens  knoweth  her  appointed  times,'  and  *  the  crane 
and  the  swallow  observe  the  time  of  their  coming!'  Jeremiah 
viii.  7. 

These  are  a  few  of  the  proofs  of  the  wisdom  and  goodness  of 


BIRDS.  131 

God  which  this  part  of  creation  exhibit ;  but,  few  as  they  are,  they 
are  sufficient  to  excite  our  admiration,  and  inspire  us  with  senti- 
ments of  adoring  gratitude  to  the  Author  of  all  being. 

The  common  name  for  a  bird  in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  is  tzephur, 
the  rapid  mover,  or  harrier;  a  name  very  expressive  of  these  vola- 
tile creatures.  A  more  general  and  indefinite  name,  is  ouph,  ajlier  ; 
but  this  appellation  denotes  every  thing  that  flies,  whether  bird  or 
insect.  It  is  frequently  translated  '  fowl '  in  the  English  Bible.  A 
bird  of  prey  is  called  oith,  a  rusher,  from  the  impetuosity  with 
which  it  rushes  upon  its  prey.  In  several  of  the  passages  where  it 
occurs,  our  translators  have  rendered  its  plural  form,  by  *  fowls.' 

The  number  of  birds  already  known,  amounts,  we  believe,  to  be- 
tween three  and  four  thousand.  To  distinguish  the  different  kinds 
from  each  other,  and  the  varieties  of  the  same  kind,  when  they  hap- 
pen to  differ,  is  a  work  of  great  difficulty ;  and  perhaps  the  attain- 
ment, when  made,  would  not  repay  the  labor.  Linnaeus  divides  all 
birds  into  six  classes,  namely  ;  birds  of  the  rapacious  kind — birds  of 
the  pie  kind — birds  of  the  poultry  kind — birds  of  the  sparrow  kind — 
birds  of  the  duck  kind — and  birds  of  the  crane  kind.  The  first  four 
comprehend  the  various  kinds  of  land  birds  ;  the  two  last,  those  that 
belong  to  water. 

From  the  Hebrew  legislator,  who  had  issued  the  strictest  injunc- 
tions on  the  subject  of  animals,  clean  and  unclean,  we  might  nat- 
turally  expect  directions  equally  strict  respecting  birds  ;  a  class  no 
less  distinguished  among  themselves,  by  their  qualities  and  modes 
of  life.  But  here  his  animal  characteristics,  derived  from  the  feet, 
failed  ;  nor  was  it  easy  to  fix  on  marks  which  should,  in  every  in- 
stance, guide  the  learned  and  the  unlearned,  to  a  right  conclusion. 
Hence,  there  is  not  in  the  Mosaic  institutes,  any  reference  to  con- 
formation, as  the  means  of  distinguishing  birds  into  clean  and  un- 
clean, lawful  and  unlawful ;  a  list  of  exceptions  forms  the  sacred  di- 
rectory, and  certain  kinds  are  forbidden,  without  a  word  concerning 
those  that  are  allowed. 

In  describing  the  various  birds  mentioned  in  Scripture,  we  shall 
adopt  the  three-fold  arrangement  to  which  reference  was  made  in 
our  introduction  to  Zoology. 


SECTION  I. 
AIR   BIRDS. 


THE  Eagle,  among  birds,  sustains  the  same  rank  as  does  the  lion 
among  beastsi.  Its  great  strength,  rapidity,  and  elevation  of  flight, 
added  to  its  natural  ferocity  and  and  voracious  disposition,  have  ob- 
tained for  it  the  character  of*  king  of  birds,'  and  confer  upon  it  the 
power  of  inspiring  terror  into  all  its  fellows  of  the  air. 

By  the  Hebrews,  the  eagle  was  called  nesher,  the  lacerator ;  and 
as  it  is  eminent  for  rapacity,  and  tearing  its  prey  into  pieces,  the  pro- 
priety of  the  designation  is  sufficiently  obvious. 

There  are  several  kinds  of  the  eagle,  described  by  naturalists,  and 
it  is  probable  that  the  Hebrew  nesher  comprehends  more  than  one 
of  them.  The  largest  and  noblest  species  known,  is  that  called  by 
Bruce  *  the  golden  eagle,'  and  by  the  Ethiopians,  *  father  long-beard? 


THE  EAGLE.  133 

from  a  tuft  of  hair  which  grows  below  its  beak.  From  wing  to 
wing,  this  bird  measures  eight  feet,  four  inches:  and  from  the  tip 
of  his  tail  to  the  point  of  his  beak,  when  dead,  four  feet,  seven 
inches.  •  The  weight  of  the  one  described  by  Mr.  Bruce  was  twen- 
ty-two pounds ;  his  middle  elaw  was  about  two  inches  and  a  half 
in  length. 

Of  all  known  birds,  the  eagle  not  only  flies  the  highest,  but  also 
with  the  greatest  rapidity.  To  this  circumstance  there  are  several 
striking  allusions  in  the  sacred  volume.  Among  the  evils  threat- 
ened to  the  Israelites  in  case  of  their  disobedience,  the  prophet 
names  one  in  the  following  terms :  *  The  Lord  shall  bring  a  nation 
against  thee  from  far,  from  the  end  of  the  earth,  as  swift  as  the  ea- 
gle flieth,'  Deut.  xxviii.  49.  The  march  of  Nebuchadnezzar  against 
Jerusalem,  is  predicted  in  the  same  terms :  *  Behold,  he  shall  come 
up  as  clouds,  and  his  chariots  as  a  whirlwind:  his  horses  are  swift- 
er than  eagles,'  (Jer.  iv.  13);  as  is,  also,  his  invasion  of  Moab :  'For 
thus  saith  the  Lord,  Behold,  he  shall  fly  as  an  eagle,  and  shall 
spread  his  wings  over  Moab,'  (chap,  xlviii.  40) ;  i.  e.  he  shall  settle 
down  on  the  devoted  country,  as  an  eagle  over  its  prey.  See  also, 
Lam.  iv.  19 ;  Hos.  viii.  1 ;  Hab.  i.  8* 

Of  all  birds,  the  eagle  has  the  quickest  eye ;  but  his  sense  of 
smelling  is  not  so  acute.  He  never  pursues  his  prey,  therefore,  ex- 
cept when  in  sight;  but,  having  once  obtained  a  view  of  it,  such  is 
the  rapidity  of  his  movement,  that  certain  destruction  ensues.  To 
this  Job  alludes,  in  expressing  the  rapid  flight  of  time:  'My  days 
are  swifter  than  a  post :  they  flee  away,  they  see  no  good.  They 
are  passed  away  as  the  swift  ships ;  as  the  eagle  that  hasteth  to  the 
prey,'  Job  ix.  25,  26. 

In  general,  these  birds  are  found  in  mountainous  and  ill-peopled 
countries,  and  breed  among  the  loftiest  cliffs.  Hence  the  sublime 
language  of  the  prophet,  in  allusion  to  the  pride  and  degradation  of 
Moab :  '  Though  thou  exalt  thyself  as  the  eagle,  and  though  thou 
set  thy  nest  among  the  stars,  thence  will  I  bring  thee  down  saith 
the  Lord,'  (Obad.  ver.  4) ;  and  also  of  Jeremiah,  with  reference  to 
the  neighboring  country  of  Edom :  '  Thy  terribleness  hath  deceiv- 
ed thee,  and  the  pride  of  thine  heart.  O  !  thou  that  dwellest  in  the 
clefts  of  the  rock,  that  boldest  the  height  of  the  hill:  though  thou 
shouldst  make  thy  nest  as  high  as  the  eagle,  I  will  bring  thee  down 
from  thence,  saith  the  Lord,'  ch.  xlix.  16."  Instead  of  the  cleft  of  the 
rock,  the  eagle  sometimes  chooses  the  lofty  cedar  as  the  place  of 
his  residence  ;  a  circumstance  not  overlooked  in  the  sacred  volume : 
'A  great  eagle  with  great  wings,  long- winged,  full  of  feathers, 
which  had  divers  colors,  came  unto  Lebanon,  and  took  the  highest 
branch  of  the  cedar,'  Ezekiel  xvii.  3. 

The  eagle,  it  is  said,  lives  to  a  great  age  :  and,  like  other  birds  of 
prey,  sheds  his  feathers  in  the  beginning  of  spring.  After  this  sea- 
son, he  appears  with  fresh  strength  and  vigor,  and  his  old  age  as^ 
sumes  the  appearance  of  youth.  To  this  David  alludes,  when  grate-, 
fiilly  reviewing  the  mercies  of  Jehovah ;  'Who  satisfieth  thy  mouth 
12 


134  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

with  good  things,  so  that  thy  youth  is  renewed  like  the  eagle's."1 
(Psalm  c\i\.  5) ;  as  does  the  prophet,  also,  when  describing  the  ren- 
ovating" and  quickening  influences  of  the  Spirit  of  God :  '  They 
that  wait  upon  the  Lord  shall  renew  their  strength  ;  they  shall 
mount  up  with  wings  as  eagles  ;  they  shall  run,  and  not  be  weary ; 
.and  they  shall  walk,  and  not  faint,'  Isaiah  xl.  31.  It  has  been  sup- 
posed that  there  is  an  allusion  to  the  moulting  of  the  eagle  in  Micah's 
charge  to  the  people  to  mourn  deeply,  because  of  the  judgments  of 
God:  'Make  thee  bald,  and  poll  thee  for  thy  delicate  children; 
enlarge  thy  baldness  as  the  eagle,'  (Minah  i.  16);  but  we  rather 
think  that  the  allusion  is  to  the  natural  baldness  of  some  particular 
species  of  this  bird,  as  that  would  be  far  more  appropriate.  The 
direction  of  the  prophet  is  to  a  token  of  mourning,  which  was  usu- 
ally assumed  by  making  bald  the  crown  of  the  head  ;  here,  however, 
it  was  to  be  enlarged,  extended,  as  the  baldness  of  the  eagle.  Ex- 
actly answering  to  this  idea  is  Mr.  Bruce's  description  of  the  head 
of  the  '  golden  eagle :'  the  crown  of  his  head  was  bare  or  bald  ;  so 
was  the  front,  where  the  bill  and  skull  joined.  The  meaning  of  the 
prophet,  therefore,  seems  to  be,  that  the  people  were  not  to  con- 
tent themselves  with  shaving  the  crown  of  the  head  merely,  as  on 
ordinary  occasions ;  but,  under  this  special  visitation  of  retributive 
justice,  they  were  to  extend  the  baldness  over  the  entire  head. 

We  have  had  frequent  occasion  to  admire  the  intimate  acquaint- 
ance which  the  writer  of  the  book  of  Job  displays  with  many  parts 
of  animated  nature;  his  account  of  the  eagle  is  characterised  by 
great  accuracy  and  beauty :  chap,  xxxix.  27 — 30. 

To  the  last  line  in  this  passage,  our  Saviour  seems  to  allude  in 
Matt.  xxiv.  28  :  '  Wheresoever  the  carcass  is,  there  will  the  eagle 
be  gathered  together;'  that  is,  wherever  the  Jewish  people,  who 
were  morally  and  judicially  dead,  might  be,  there  would  the  Koman 
armies,  whose  standard  was  an  eagle,  and  whose  strength  and 
fierceness  resembled  that  of  the  king  of  birds,  in  comparison  with 
his  fellows,  pursue  and  devour  them. 

In  Deut.  xxxii.  11,  there  is  a  beautiful  comparison  of  the"'care 
and  paternal  affection  of  the  Deity  for  his  people,  with  the  natural 
tenderness  of  the  eagle  for  its  young. 

The  remarkable  circumstance  of  bearing  the  young  upon  her 
wings,  is  alluded  to  in  another  part  of  scripture,  (Exod.  xix.  4) ;  and 
many  passages  in  the  writings  of  ancient  authors  countenance  the 
idea,  that  the  eagle  actually  takes  up  her  timid  young  ones,  and 
bears  them  on  her  wings  till  they  venture  to  fly.  It  is  not  to  be 
supposed  that  she  wafts  her  unfledged  young  through  the  voids  of 
heaven,  or  to  distant  places ;  the  meaning  probably  is,  that  she  aids 
with  her  wings  their  feeble  and  imperfect  attempts  to  fly,  till,  em- 
boldened by  her  example,  and  their  own  success,  they  fearlessly 
oornmit  themselves  to  the  air.  So  did  Jehovah,  says  Paxton,  for 
bis  c.hosen  people.  When  they  were  slumbering  in  Goshen,  or 

foaning  in  despajr  of  recovering  their  freedom,  he  sent  his  servant 
oses  to  rouse  them  from  their  inglorious  sloth,  to  assert  their  lib- 


THE  HAWK  AND  THE  KITE.  135 

erty,*and  to  break  their  chains  upon  the  heads  of  their  oppressors. 
He  carried  them  out  of  Egypt,  and  led  them  through  the  wilderness 
into  their  promised  inheritance.  He  taught  them  to  know  their 
strength-;  he  instructed  them  in  the  art  of  war;  he  led  them  to  bat- 
tle 5  and,  by  his  almighty  arm,  routed  their  enemies. 

It  is  remarkable  that  Cyrus,  compared  in  Isaiah  xlvi.  11,  o  an 
eagle  (so  the  word  translated  '  ravenous  bird'  should  be  rendered), 
is]by  Xenophon  said  to  have  had  an  eagle  for  his  ensign  ;  using, 
without  knowing  it,  the  identical  word  of  the  prophet,  with  only  a 
Greek  termination  to  it.  So  exact  is  the  correspondence  betwixt 
the  prophet  and  the  historian,  the  prediction  and  the  event. 

In  Lev.  xi.  18,  we  read  of  the  *  gier  eagle'  (Hebrew,  HACHAM), 
though,  being  associated  with  water  birds,  it  is  doubtful  whether 
any  kind  of  eagle  is  intended. 

There  are  two  other  species  of  the  eagle  or  vulture,  placed  by 
Moses  in  his  list  of  prohibited  birds ; — the  Ossifrage  and  the  Osprey, 
but  they  do  not  call  for  particular  remark. 


THE    HAWK    AND    THE    KITE, 


THIS  bird,  which  is  distinguished  by  the  swiftness  of  its  flight,  is 
appropriately  termed  the  flier,  in  the  Hebrew  scriptures.  But  the 
term  is  not  confined  to  the  individual  species  of  bird  properly  called 
the^hawk  ;  it  includes  the  various  species  of  the  falcon  family,  which 
is  very  numerous. 

The  hawk  was  highly  venerated  by  the  heathen,  but  it  was  pro- 
nounced unclean  by  the  Jewish  lawgiver ;  and  was  an  abomination 
to  the  people  of  Israel.  Its  flesh  was  not  to  be  eaten,  nor  its  car- 
cass touched  with  impunity.  The  reason  of  this  law  may  probably 
be  found  in  the  dispositions  and  qualities  of  the  bird  ;  she  is  a  bird 
of  prey,  and,  by  consequence,  cruel  in  her  temper,  and  gross  in  her 
manners.  Her  mode  of  living,  too,  may,  perhaps,  impart  a  disagree- 
able taste  and  flavor  to  the  flesh,  and  render  it,  particularly  in  a 
warm  climate,  improper  for  the  table. 

Most  of  the  species  of  hawks  are  birds  of  passage,  to  which  cir- 
cumstance'there  is  a  reference  in  Job  xxxix.  26 : 


136  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

Doth  the  hawk  fly  by  thy  wisdom, 

And  stretch  her  wings  towards  the  south  2 

That  is, '  doth  she  know,  through  thy  skill  and  wisdom,  the  precise 
period  for  taking  flight,  or  migrating  and  stretching  her  wings  to- 
wards a  southern  or  warmer  climate  ?  '  Her  migration  is  not  con- 
ducted by  the  wisdom  and  prudence  of  man ;  but  by  the  superin- 
tending and  upholding  providence  of  God. 

The  KITE  may  with  propriety  be  noticed  here,  as  it  belongs  to 
the  same  family  of  birds ;  and  the  scriptural  references  to  it  not  be- 
ing of  sufficient  importance  to  require  a  lengthened  account  of  its 
nature  and  habits.  It  is  remarkable  for  the  quickness  of  its  sight, 
to  which  there  is  evidently  an  allusion  in  Job  xxviii.  7,  though  the 

*  vulture'  is  inserted  in  our  authorized  version  : 

There  is  a  path  which  no  fowl  knoweth, 
And  which  the  eye  of  the  kite  hath  not  seen. 

The  same  word  occurs  in  a  plural  form  in  Isaiah  xiii.  22 ;  chap, 
xxxiv.  14  ;  and  Jer.  1.  39  ;  in  all  which  places  our  translation  reads 

*  wild  beasts  of  the  islands,'  which  Bochart  understands  of 'jackals;' 
but  by  the  several  contexts,  as  Parkhurst  remarks,  and  particularly 
the  last,  it  may  a$  well  denote  a  kind  of  unclean  birds. 


THE  RAVEN.  137 


THE    RAVEN, 


THE  sable  color  of  this  bird  is  fully  recognised  in  its  Hebrew  ap- 
pellation, which  is  taken  from  oreb,  the  evening.  Bochart  has  well 
remarked,  that  the  color  of  a  crow  or  raven  is  not  a  dead,  but  a 
glossy  shining  black,  like  silk,  and  so  is  properly  a  mixture  of  dark- 
ness and  splendor.  Black  appears  to  have  been  a  color  held  in  high 
estimation  by  the  ancients ;  and  black  eyes  and  raven  locks  entered 
into  their  ideas  of  female  loveliness.  In  conformity  with  this  opin- 
ion is  the  declaration  of  the  spouse,  with  reference  to  her  beloved: 
*  His  pendulous  locks  are  as  black  as  a  raven,'  Cant.  v.  11. 

The  raven  is  found  in  every  region  of  the  world.  Strong  and 
hardy,  it  is  uninfluenced  by  the  changes  of  the  weather;  and  when 
other  birds  seem  numbed  with  the  cold,  or  pining  with  famine,  the 
raven  is  active  and  healthy,  busily  employed  in  prowling  for  prey, 
or  sporting  in  the  coldest  atmosphere.  An  active  and  greedy  plun- 
derer, nothing  comes  amiss  to  him  ;  whether  his  prey  be  living,  or 
long  dead,  it  is  all  the  same, — he  falls  to  with  a  voracious  appetite, 
and  when  he  has  gorged  himself,  flies  to  acquaint  his  fellows,  that 
they  may  participate  in  the  spoil. 

Solomon  appears  to  give  a  distinct  character  to  some  of  the  ravens 

in  Palestine,  when  he  says,  *  The  eye  that  mooketh  at  his  father, 

and  despiseth  to  obey  his  mother,  the  ravens  of  the  valley  shall  pick 

it  out,  and  the  young  eagles  shall  eat  it,'  Prov.  xxx.  17.    In  this 

12* 


138  SCRIPTURE   NATURAL  HISTORY. 

passage,  says  Paxton,  the  wise  man  may  allude  to  a  species  of  raven 
which  prefers  the  valley  for  her  habitation  to  the  clefts  of  the  rock  ; 
or  he  may,  perhaps,  refer  to  some  sequestered  valley  in  the  land  of 
promise,  much  frequented  by  these  birds,  which  derived  its  name 
from  that  circumstance  ;  or,  as  the  rocky  precipice  where  the  raven 
loves  to  build  her  nest  often  overhangs  the  torrent  (which  the  orig- 
inal word  also  signifies),  and  the  lofty  tree,  which  is  equally  accept- 
able, rises  on  its  banks,  the  royal  preacher  might,  by  that  phrase, 
merely  intend  the  ravens  which  prefer  such  situations.  Bochart 
conjectures,  that  the  valley  alluded  to  was  Tophet,  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Jerusalem,  which  the  prophet  Jeremiah  calls  the  valley  o 
the  dead  bodies,  because  the  dead  bodies  of  criminals  were  cast  in- 
to it,  where  they  remained  without  burial,  till  they  were  devoured 
by  flocks  of  ravens,  which  collected  for  that  purpose  from  the  cir- 
cumjacent country.  If  this  conjecture  be  right,  the  meaning  of  Sol- 
omon will  be  this :  He  who  is  guilty  of  so  great  a  crime,  shall  be 
subjected  to  an  infamous  punishment;  he  shall  be  cast  into  the  val- 
Jey  of  dead  bodies,  and  shall  find  no  grave,  but  the  devouring  maw 
of  the  impure  arid  voracious  raven.  The  wise  man  insinuates,  that 
tfae  raven  makes  his  first  and  keenest  attack  on  the  eye ;  which 
perfectly  corresponds  with  his  habits,  for  he  always  begins  his  ban- 
quet with  that  part  of  the  body. 

The  earliest  notice  which  we  have  of  the  raven  in  scripture,  is  in 
the  account  of  the  deluge,  (Gen.  viii.  7;)  whence  we  learn,  that  on 
the  decrease  of  the  waters,  Noah  sent  out  this  bold  and  adventur- 
ous bird,  to  ascertain  the  state  of  the  surrounding  country. 

The  remarkable  occurrence  in  the  history  of  Elijah  (1  Kings 
xvii.  4 — 6,)  has  given  rise  to  considerable  discussion. 

Let  us  suppose,  for  a  moment,  that  Elijah  was  concealed  in  some 
rocky  or  mountainous  spot,  where  passengers  never  strayed ;  and 
that  here  a  number  of  voracious  birds  had  built  their  nests  on  the 
trees  which  grew  around  it,  or  on  projections  of  rocks,  &c.:  these 
flying  every  day  to  procure  food  for  their  young,  the  prophet  avails 
himself  of  a  part  of  what  they  brought,  and  while  they,  obeying 
the  dictates  of  natnre,  designed  only  to  provide  for  their  offspring, 
Divine  Providence  directed  them  to  provide,  at  the  same  time,  for 
the  wants  of  Elijah;  so  that  what  he  gathered,  whether  from  their 
nests,  from  wliat  they  dropped  or  brought  to  him,  or  occasionally 
from  both  means,  was  enough  for  his  daily  support.  '  And  the 
orebim  furnished  him  bread,  or  flesh,  in  the  morning,  and  bread,  or 
flesh,  in  the  evening,'  But  there  being  a  good  many  of  them,  Mr. 
Taylor  inclines  to  think  that  some  of  them  might  furnish  bread,  and 
others  flesh,  at  different  times ;  so  that  a  little  from  each  made  up 
his  solitary  but  satisfactory  meal.  To  such  straits  was  the  exiled 
prophet  driven,  and  such  was  the  dependence  of  this  zealous  man 
of  God! 

The  objection  which  has  been  urged  against  the  raven  being  em- 
ployed on  this  errand  of  mercy,  from  its  very  gross  and  impure  dis- 
position, may  be  in  some  measure  removed  by  considering  that  the 


THE  RAVEN.  139 

Hebrew  name,  as  already  observed,  includes  the  whole  of  this  genus 
of  birds,  among  which  we  find  some  less  impure  than  the  raven  ; 
as  the  rook,  which  species  Mr.  Taylor  inclines  to  believe  was  the 
one  employed.  As  to  God's  'commanding'  the  ravens,  it  will  be 
found  a  mode  of  speech  adopted  where  vocal  commands  could  not 
be  employed.  See  Job  xxxviii,  11 ;  Psalm  Ixxviii.  23 ;  Isniah  xlv. 
12.  To  command  the  ravens,  then,  may  only  denote  that  God  made 
use  of  them  in  providing  for  the  necessities  of  his  servant. 

It  is  said  by  naturalists,  that  the  ravens  drive  out  their  young  one& 
early  from  the  nest,  and  oblige  them  to  seek  food  for  their  own  sus- 
tenance. It  is  to  this  fact,  probably,  that  the  Psalmist  alludes,  when 
he  says,  *  The  Lord  giveth  to  the  beast  his  food,  and  to  the  young 
ravens  which  cry,'  (Psalm  cxlvii.  9) ;  and  Job :  '  Who  provideth  for 
the  raven  his  food  ?  when  his  young  ones  cry  unto  God,  wandering 
for  want  of  meat,'  ch.  xxxviii.  41.  But  the  care  of  Providence,  says 
professor  Paxton,  is  not  confined  to  the  young ;  it  extends  alsa  to 
the  parents,  that,  like  their  brood,  '  neither  sow  nor  reap,  have  nei- 
ther storehouse  nor  barn,'  (Luke  xii.  24) ;  and  supplies  them  with 
food  from  his  inexhaustible  stores.  Whatever  may  be  their  charac- 
ter and  habits,  they  are  the  work  of  infinite  wisdom  and  p©wer ; 
and  if  it  be  not  unbecoming  the  Almighty  Creator  to  make  such 
creatures,  it  cannot  be  unbecoming  to  provide", for  [their  support. 
They,  too,  have  their  sphere  of  action  ;  and  their  qualities  and  in- 
stincts are  usefully  employed,  both  for  themselves  and  the  other 
parts  of  the  terrestrial  creation  ;  even  the  meanness  of  their  charac- 
ter is  of  no  small  advantage  to  the  considerate  mind,  in  allaying  his 
fears,  and  in  exciting  and  establishing  his  confidence  in  the  wise 
and  bountiful  arrangement  of  Providence.  The  argument  of  our 
Lord  is  exceedingly  strong  and  pointed.  If  the  Almighty  hear  not 
in  vain  the  croaking  of  a  young  raven,  he  surely  will  not  turn  a 
deaf  ear  to  the  supplications  of  his  own  people. 


140  SCRIPTURE   NATURAL  HISTORY. 

THE    DOVE. 


THIS  beautiful  and  gentle  creature  was  called,  by  the  Hebrews, 
tone/i,  which  signifies  mildness,  gentleness,  &c.  Parkhurst  derives 
the  Hebrew  name  from  a  root  which  admits  the  sense  of  defenceless, 
and  exposed  to  rapine  and  violence ;  remarkable  characteristics  of  this 
lovely  bird,  and  which  are  accordingly  noticed  by  some  of  the  an- 
cient poets. 

The  dove,  which  is  used  in  scripture  as  the  symbol  of  simplicity, 
innocence,  and  fidelity,  furnishes  the  sacred  writers  with  many 
beautiful  allusions.  From  the  earliest  times,  it  appears  to  have  been 
offered  in  sacrifice,  (Gen.  xv.  9) ;  and  in  the  Mosaic  ritual  it  is  re- 
peatedly prescribed  for  this  use. 

The  dove  is  universally  admitted  to  be  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
objects  in  nature.  The  brilliancy  of  her  plumage,  the  splendor  of 
her  eye,  the  innocence  of  her  look,  the  excellence  of  her  disposi- 
tions, and  the  purity  of  her  manners,  have  been  the  theme  of  ad- 
miration and  praise  in  every  age.  To  the  snowy  whiteness  of  her 
wings,  and  the  rich  golden  hues  which  adorn  her  neck,  the  inspir- 
ed Psalmist  has  been  thought  to  allude  in  these  elegant  strains : 
*  Though  ye  have  lien  among  the  pots,  yet  ye  shall  be  as  the  wings 
of  a  dove,  covered  with  silver,  and  her  feathers  with  yellow  gold,* 
Psalm  Ixviii.  13.  Mr.  Harmer  is  of  opinion,  however,  that  the 
Psalmist  alludes,  not  to  an  animal  adorned  merely  by  the  hand  of 
nature,  but  to  the  doves  consecrated  to  the  Syrian  deities,  and  or- 
namented with  trinkets  of  gold.  Agreeably  to  this  view,  he  inter- 
prets the  passage  thus  :  '  Israel  is  to  me  as  a  consecrated  dove  ;  and 
though  your  circumstances  have  made  you  rather  appear,  like  a 
dove,  blackened  by  taking  up  its  abode  in  a  smoky  hole  of  the  rock  ; 
yet  shall  ye  become  beautiful  and  glorious  as  a  Syrian  silver-color- 
ed pigeon,  on  whom  some  ornament  of  gold  is  put.  But  this  view 
of  the  passage,  as  Professor  Paxton  observes,  makes  the  Holy  Spir- 
it speak  with  some  approbation,  or  at  least  without  censure,  of  a 
heathenish  rite,  and  even  to  borrow  from  it  a  figure  to  illustrate  the 
effects  of  Divine  favor  among  his  chosen  people  ;  and  as  no  other 
instance  of  the  kind  occurs  in  scripture,  he  thinks  it  cannot  be  ad- 


THE  DOVE.  141 

mitted  here,  without  much  stronger  evidence  than  that  respectable 
writer  has  produced. 

Mr.  William  Baxter  gives  another  translation  of  the  passage,  re- 
marking, '  It  was  the  custom  for  the  Hebrew  armies,  as  well  as  the 
Syrians  and  Assyrians,  to  have  a  dove  for  their  standard  ;  to  which 
the  Psalmist  alluding,  says, « If  you  shall  abide  by  your  standard, 
the  silver-colored  dove,  whose  wings  are  gilt  with  gold,  when  the 
Almighty  by  its  means  has  scattered  the  kings,  the  marks  of  victory 
shall  be  displayed  in  your  ensign,  and  your  dove  appear  as  white 
as  snow.'  All  interpreters  have  blindly  followed  the  Septuagint  in 
this  place,  who,  either  ignorantly,  or  perhaps  wilfully,  rendered  it 
obscure  ;  for,  being  unwilling  to  gratify  the  Syrians,  who  worship- 
ped a  dove,  with  so  honorable  a  mention  of  their  deity,  instead  of 
translating  the  Hebrew  word,  a  standard,  as  they  ought  to  have 
done,  they  made  a  proper  name  of  it,  and  rendered  it  Mount  Sd- 
mon.' 

The  author  of  Scripture  Illustrated '  enlarges  upon  this  construc- 
tion, and  gives  a  new  version,  accompanied  by  remarks,  which 
elucidate  other  passages.  These,  Dr.  Harris  has  transferred  into 
his  Natural  History,  with  a  few  emendations ;  arid  in  this  corrected 
state  we  shall  copy  them  here. 

After  having  remarked  that  the  whole  of  the  psalm  appears  to  be 
a  triumphal  ode  for  success  in  battle,  the  doctor  inquires  how  is  it 
possible  that  the  same  persons  who  had  put  to  flight  these  kings, 
and  had  taken  the  spoil  home  to  their  families,  should  lie  among 
the  pots !  How  should  these  soldiers  suffer  such  disgrace,  and  that 
at  the  very  time  when  they  enjoy  the  victory  ! — This  is  inconceiv- 
able ;  but  if  we  recollect  that  the  standard  of  the  dove  was  used  as 
a  military  ensign,  and  suppose  it  to  be  alluded  to  here,  then  we 
have  an  entirely  distinct  view  of  the  article,  and  may  understand  it 
accordingly : 

That  the  dove  was  a  miiitary  ensign,  may  be  gathered  from  the 
history  in  the  Chronicon  Samaritanum,  where  we  read  that  'the 
Romans  placed  a  pigeon  [or  dove]  on  Mount  Gerizirn,  to  hinder 
them  from  going  thither  to  worship  with  troops.  Some  Samari- 
tans attempted  to  go  up ;  but  the  bird  discovered  them,  and  cried 
out,  The  Hebrews!  The  guards  awoke,  and  slew  those  who  were 
coming  up.'  Understand  here  a  military  sentry  and  ensign,  and 
'the  dove'  becomes  intelligible  at  once. 

The  paleness  of  the  kings,  who  accompanied  this  banner,  is  ex- 
tremely characteristic  of  their  appearance  when  they  saw  their  sa- 
cred emblem  cast  down,  and  trampled  on  by  the  Israelites ;  or,  if 
they  themselves,  in  their  haste  cast  it  down,  that  they  might  flee 
the  more  swiftly,  the  shame  is  equal. 

These  and  other  considerations  lead  to  the  conclusion,  1st.  that 
the  dove  was  certainly  used  as  a  military  ensign,  and  2dly,  that 
as  the  Assyrians  were  eminent  and  ancient  worshippers  of  the 
dove,  it  might  be  supposed  to  be  appropriately  their  banner  or 
standard.  This  will  authorise  a  translation  of  several  passages  of 
scripture  different  from  our  present  public  version. 


142  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

Jeremiah,  speaking  of  the  ravages  which  would  be  committed  in 
Judea  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  says,  'The  land  is  desolate  because  of 
the  fierceness  of  the  dove.'  And  again,  *  Let  us  go  to  our  own  peo- 
ple, to  avoid  the  sword  of  the  dove  :'  and  in  another  place,  'They 
shall  flee  every  one,  for  fear  of  the  sword  of  the  dove.'  Each  of 
these  places  is  intelligible,  by  supposing  that  the  king  of  the  Chal- 
deans is  referred  to,  who  bore  a  dove  in  his  ensigns,  in  memory  of 
Semiramis. 

The  surprising  brightness  of  the  dove's  eye,  and  the  simplicity  of 
her  look,  which  is  directed  only  to  her  mate,  are  selected  by  the 
Spirit  of  God,  to  express  the  purity  and  fidelity  of  a  genuine  be- 
liever. *  Behold,  thou  art  fair,  my  love;  behold,  thou  art  fair;  thou 
hast  doves'  eyes,'  Cant.  i.  15.  A  faithful  index  of  the  holiness 
which  reigns  within  ;  they  neither  court  the  notice,  nor  meet  the 
glance  of  a  strange  lord.  The  same  beautiful  image  is  employed 
to  represent  the  peerless  excellences  of  the  Redeemer,  and  particu- 
larly his  infinite  wisdom  and  knowledge,  which  are  ever  exercised 
for  the  good  of  his  people;  which  are  pure  and  holy,  and  in  the 
estimation  of  every  saint,  as  in  their  own  nature,  ineffably  precious 
and  lovely  :  •*  His  eyes  are  as  the  eyes  of  doves  by  the  rivers  of 
waters,  washed  with  milk,  and  filly  set,'  Cant.  v.  12.  The  eyes  of 
a  dove,  always  brilliant  and  lovely,  kindle  with  peculiar  delight  by 
the  side  of  a  crystal  brook,  for  this  is  her  favorite  haunt ;  here  she 
loves  to  wash,  and  to  quench  her  thirst.  But  the  inspired  writer 
seems  to  intimate  that,  not  satisfied  with  a  single  rivulet,  she  de- 
lights especially  in  those  places  which  are  watered  with  numerous 
streams,  whose  full  flowing  tide  approaches  the  height  of  the 
banks,  and  offers  her  an  easy  and  abundant  supply.  They  seem  as 
if  they  were  washed  with  milk,  from  their  shining  whiteness;  and 
fitly,  or  rather  fully  set,  like  a  gem  set  in  gold,  neither  too  promi- 
nent nor  too  depressed  ;  but  so  formed,  as  with  nice  adaptation,  to 
fill  up  the  socket.  So  precious  and  admirably  fitted  to  the  work  of 
mediating  between  God  and  man,  are  the  excellences  of  Jesus 
Christ.  God  and  man  in  one  person,  he  is  at  once  invested  with 
all  the  attributes  of  Deity,  and  all  the  perfections  of  which  our  na- 
ture is  capable.  As  the  eternal  Son  of  God,  he  is  wisdom  and  pru- 
dence itself;  and  as  the  Son  of  man,  he  is  '  holy,  harmless,  unde- 
filed,  and  separate  from  sinners : '  '  He  is  white  and  ruddy,  the 
chief  among  ten  thousands :  yea,  he  is  altogether  lovely.' 

The  manners  of  the  dove  are  as  engaging  as  her  form  is  elegant, 
and  her  plumage  rich  and  beautiful.  She  is  the  chosen  emblem  of 
simplicity,  gentleness,  purity,  and  feminine  timidity.  Our  blessed 
Lord  alludes  with  striking  effect  to  her  amiable  temper,  in  that  well- 
known  direction  to  his  disciples,  •  Be  ye  wise  as  serpents,  and  harm- 
less as  doves,'  Matt.  x.  16.  Wisdom,  without  simplicity,  degener- 
ates into  cunning — simplicity,  without  wisdom,  into  silliness :  uni- 
ted, the  one  corrects  the  excess  or  supplies  the  defects  of  the  other, 
and  both  become  the  objects  of  praise  5  but  separated,  neither  the 
wisdom  of  the  serpent,  nor  the  simplicity  of  the  dove,  obtains  in 


THE  DOVE.  143 

this  passage  the  Saviour's  commendation.  The  character  which 
is  compounded  of  both  makes  the  nearest  approach  to  the  true 
standard  of  Christian  excellence.  The  wisdom  of  the  serpent  ena- 
bles the  believer  to  discern  between  good  and  evil,  truth  and  error, 
that,  having  proved  all  things,  he  may  hold  fast  that  which  is  good; 
the  simplicity  of  the  dove  renders  him  inoffensive  and  sincere,  that 
he  may  not  deceive  nor  injure  his  neighbor.  Such  were  the  quali- 
ties which  the  Saviour  recommended  to  his  followers,  and  his  apos- 
tle wished  the  Romans  to  obtain:  'I  would  have  you  wise  unto 
that  which  is  good,  and  simple  concerning  evil,'  chap.  xvi.  19. 

The  mourning  of  the  dove  (Isaiah  xxxviii.  14:  lix.  11)  alludes  to 
the  plaintive  murmuring  of  this  bird,  particularly  of  the  turtle-dove, 
•which  is  said  to  be  disconsolate  and  to  die  with  grief  at  the  loss  of 
its  mate.  To  this  circumstance  Nahum  also  refers,  when  predict- 
ing the  desolation  of  Nineveh  :— '  Huzzab  shall  be  led  away  captive  ; 
she  shall  be  brought  up,  and  her  maids  shall  lead  her  as  with  the 
voice  of  doves  tabering  upon  their  breasts,'  chap.  ii.  /. 

It  is  supposed,  that  in  Eccles.  x.  20,  there  is  an  allusion  to  the 
custom,  so  long  and  extensively  adopted,  of  employing  these  birds 
as  couriers  to  carry  tidings  from  one  place  to  another:  'Curse  not 
the  king,  no,  not  in  thy  thought ;  and  curse  not  the  rich  in  thy  bed- 
chamber ;  for  a  bird  of  the  air  shall  carry  the  voice,  and  they  which 
have  wings  shall  tell  the  matter.' 

The  conjugal  fidelity  of  the  dove  has  been  noticed  by  every  wri- 
ter who  has  treated  of  her  character.  She  admits  but  of  one  mate, 
to  whom  she  seems  most  affectionately  attached,  and  from  whom 
she  is  never  known  to  separate  while  life  continues.  The  black 
pigeon,  it  is  said,  after  the  death  of  her  mate,  continues  in  a  widow- 
ed state  for  life:  the  intense  grief  of  the  turtle-dove  on  this  occur- 
ence  we  have  already  noticed.  This  may  help  to  illustrate  those 
passages  of  scripture  in  which  the  undivided  affection  and  indisolu- 
ble  union  which  subsist  between  the  Saviour  and  his  church  are 
represented.  'Oh,  my  dove,  that  art  in  the  clefts  of  the  rock,  in 
the  secret  places  of  the  stars,  let  me  see  thy  countenance,  let  me 
hear  thy  voice;  for  sweet  is  thy  voice,  and'  thy  countenance  come- 
ly,'Cant.  ii.  14.  'My  dove,  my  undefiled  is  but  one;  she  is  the 
*>nly  one  of  her  mother,  she  is  the  choice  one  of  her  that  bare  her,' 
ch.  vi.  9. 

In  the  New  Testament,  the  dove  is  the  chosen  emblem  of  the 
Holy  Spirit,  who,  in  the  economy  of  grace,  is  not  only  the  messen- 
.ger  of  peace  and  joy  to  sinful  men,  but  also  the  author  of  those  gen- 
tle and  peaceable  dispositions  of  mind,  which  characterise,  in  every 
part  of  the  world,  the  true  believer  in  Christ:  The  fruit  of  the 
Spirit  is  love,  joy,  peace,  long-suffering,  gentleness,  goodness,  faith 
[or  fidelity,],  meekness,  temperance,'  Gal.  v.  22. 

During  ihe  siege  of  Samaria,  by  Ben-hadad,  king  of  Syria,  we 
are  informed  (2  Kings  vi.  25)  that  so  pressing  was  the  famine,  an 
ass's  head  was  sold  for  fourscore  pieces  of  silver,  and  the  fourth 
j>art  of  a  cab  of  dove's  dung  for  five  pieces  of  silver.  This,  howev- 


144  SCRIPTURE   NATURAL   HISTORY. 

er,  was  not  what  its  name  would  seem  to  import,  but  a  kind  of  pulse 
or  pea,  which  is  common  in  Judea,  and  to  which  the  Arabians  give 
this  name.  See  2  Sam.  xvii.  28. 

The  TURTLE  is  only  a  variety  of  the  dove,  as  is  also  the  common 
pigeon.  The  former  is  something  the  smaller  of  the  two  ;  but  the 
principal  difference  between  this  and  the  other  birds,  is  in  its  migra- 
tory disposition.  To  this  circumstance  there  is  evidently  an  allu- 
sion in  Jer.  viii.  7:  'The  stork  in  the  heaven  knowcth  her  appoint- 
ed times;  and  the  turtle,  and  the  crane,  and  the  swallow,  observe 
the  time  of  their  coming.'  It  is  also  referred  to  in  Cant.  ii.  31,  ]2, 
where  it  is  recognised  as  the  welcome  harbinger  of  the  returning 
spring :  *  Rise  up,  my  love,  my  fair  one,  and  come  away ;  for,  lo ! 
the  winter  is  past,  the  rain  is  over  and  gone,  the  flowers  appear  on 
the  earth,  the  time  of  the  singing  of  birds  is  come,  and  the  voice  of 
the  turtle  is  heard  in  our  land.' 


THE    SWALLOW7. 


THE  only  mention  of  this  bird  is  in  Jsaiah  xxxviii.  14.,  and  Jer- 
emiah viii.  7.  In  the  former  passage,  Hezekiah,  referring  to  the 
severity  of  his  recent  affliction,  says,  'Like  a  swallow,  or  a  crane, 
so  did  I  chatter.'  The  note  of  the  swallow,  being  quiek  and  mourn- 
ful, the  allusion  of  the  king  has  been  supposed  to  be  to  his  prayers, 
which  were  so  interrupted  by  groanings,  as  to  be  but  like  the  quick 
twitterings  of  the  swallow.  This  seems  to  have  occasioned  the  pi- 
ous monarch  to  regard  with  suspicion  the  sincerity  and  fervor  of 
his  supplications,  thus  delivered  but  in  broken  accents  ;  and  in  bit- 
terness of  spirit  he  casts  himself  upon  the  unbounded  mercy  of  his 
God,  exclaiming,  *  O  Lord,  I  am  oppressed  ;  undertake  for  me.' 
The  passage  in  Jeremiah,  refers  to  the  well-known  migration  of  this 
bird  ;  a  circumstance  from  which  the  faithful  prophet  takes  occa- 
sion to  reprove  the  ingratitude  and  infidelity  of  the  favored  tribes : 
*  The  turtle,  and  the  crane,  and  the  swallow,  observe  the  time  of 
their  coming ;  but  my  people  know  not  the  judgment  of  the  Lord 


THE  SPARROW.  145 

THE    SPARROW. 


IN  the  sacred  writings,  the  Word  tzeppur,  which  is  a  general  ternl 
applied  to  the  feathered  race>  is  in  a  more  restricted  sense  appropri- 
ated to  the  sparrow.  This  remark  is  the  more  necessary  to  be  borne 
in  mind,  because  some  translators,  and  among  them  ihe  English, 
have  introduced  the  sparrow  into  the  text,  where  this  bird  was  evi- 
dently not  intended  by  the  inspired  writers.  Our  own  translation, 
however,  requires  correction  but  in  one  passage,  namely,  Psalm  cii* 
7 :  '  I  watch,  and  am  as  a  sparrow  alone  upon  the  house-top.'  To 
justify  this  translation,  interpreters  have  represented  the  sparrow  as 
a  solitary,  moping  bird,  which  loves  to  dwell  on  the  house-top  alone ; 
and  so  timid,  that  she  endeavors  to  conceal  herself  in  the  darkest 
corners^  and  passes  the  night  in  sleepless  anxiety.  But  her  charac- 
ter and  manners  by  no  means  agree  with  this  description.  On  the 
contrary,  she  is  a  pert,  loquacious,  bustling  creature ;  which,  instead 
of  courting  the  dark  and  solitary  corner,  is  commonly  found  chirp- 
ing arid  fluttering  about  in  the  crowd.  The  term  in  this  text,  there- 
fore, must  be  understood  in  its  general  sense,  and  probably  refers  to 
some  variety  of  the  owl.  Jerom  renders  it, '  I  was  as  a  solitary  bird 
on  the  roof.'  The  Hebrew  text  contains  nothing  which  can  with 
propriety  suggest  the  sparrow,  or  any  similar  bird :  and,  indeed, 
nothing  seems  to  be  more  remote  from  the  mind  of  David :  all  the 
circumstances  indicate  some  bird  of  the  night ;  for  the  Psalmist, 
bending  under  a  load  of  severe  affliction,  shuns  the  society  of  men, 
and  mingles  his  unceasing  groans  and  lamentations  with  the  mourn- 
ful hootings  of  those  solitary  birds,  which  disturb  the  lonely  desert. 
'By  reason  of  the  voice  of  my  groanings,  my  bones  cleave  to  my 
skin  ;  I  am  like  a  pelican  of  the  wilderness ;  I  am  like  an  owl  of 
the  desert.'  He  then  proceeds  with  his  comparison :  *  I  watch,  and 
am  as  a  bird  upon  the  house-top  alone.'  I  watch  ;  that  is,  I  have 
13 


146  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

spent  a  sleepless  night ;  or,  as  it  is  paraphrased  in  the  Chaldee,  '  I 
have  watched  the  whole  night  long,  without  once  closing  my  eyes.' 
Every  part  of  this  description  directs  our  attention  to  some  noctur- 
nal bird,  which  hates  the  light,  and  comes  forth  from  its  hiding- 
place  when  the  shadows  of  evening  fall,  to  hunt  the  prey,  and,  from 
the  top  of  some  ruined  tower,  to  tell  its  joys  or  its  sorrows  to  a 
slumbering  world. 

A  passage  in  the  eighty-fourth  psalm,  which  was  probably  pen- 
ned by  the  royal  minstrel  when  driven  from  his  throne  and  the  sa- 
cred temple,  by  the  rebellion  of  his  unnatural  son,  refers  to  this  bird. 
Ardently  desirous  of  associating  with  the  people  of  God  in  the  pre- 
scribed ordinances  of  public  worship,  the  pious  Psalmist  seems  to 
envy  these  birds  their  proximity  to  the  sacred  altar:  'The  sparrow 
hath  found  out  a  house,  and  the  swallow  a  nest  for  herself,  where- 
she  may  lay  her  young,  even  thine  altars,  O  Lord  of  Hosts,  my 
King  and  my  God,'  ver.  3.  Parkhurst's  translation  removes  some 
of  the  difficulties  of  the  usual  reading:  'Even  [as]  the  sparrow 
lindeth  her  house,  and  the  dove  her  nest  where  she  hath  laid 
her  young,  [so  shall  I  find]  thine  altars,  O  Jehovah  of  Hosts,  my 
King,  and  my  God.' 

Among  the  appropriate  and  felicitous  illustrations  interwoven 
with  our  Lord's  arguments  for  a  special  or  particular  providence,  is 
one  taken  from  the  care  of  our  heavenly  Father  exercised  towards 
this  mean  and  generally  despised  bird  :  '  Are  not  two  sparrows  sold 
for  a  farthing?  and  one  of  them  shall  not  fall  on  the  ground  with- 
out your  Father,'  (Matthew  x.  29) ;  or, according  to  Luke,  'not  one 
of  them  is  forgotten  before  God,'  cli.  xii.  6.  Not  that  we  are  to 
conclude  from  these  texts,  as  Pope  has  falsely  done,  that 

'  He  views  with  equal  eye,  as  Lord  of  all, 
A  hero  perish,  or  a  sparrow  fall ;' 

a  sentiment  not  less  opposed  to  the  dictates  of  enlightened  reason, 
than  it  is  to  the  whole  scope  of  our  Saviour's  discourse,  (Matt,  ch, 
vi.)  from  which  we  learn,  that  the  love  of  God  to  his  creatures  is  in 
proportion  to  their  excellence  in  the  scale  of  being,  and  that  by 
these  considerations  the  care  of  his  providence  is  regulated.  'Be- 
hold the  fowls  of  the  air:  for  they  sow  not,  neither  do  they  reap 
nor  gather  into  barns;  yet  your  heavenly  Father  feedeth  them, 
Jirt  ye  not  much  better  than  they  ? '  ver.  26. 


SECTION   II. 
LAND    BIRDS. 


THE    OSTRICH 


THE  ostrich  is  considered  to  be  the  largest  of  birds,  and  the  con- 
necting link  between  quadrupeds  and  fowls.  Its  head  and  bill  some- 


148  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

what  resemble  those  of  a  duck  ;  and  the  neck  may  be  compared  to 
that  of  a  swan,  but  that  it  is  much  longer.  The  legs  and  thighs  re- 
semble those  of  a  hen,  but  are  very  fleshy  and  large.  The  end  of 
the  foot  is  cloven,  and  has  two  very  large  toes,  which,  like  the  leg, 
are  covered  with  scales.  These  toes  are  of  unequal  sizes ;  the  lar- 
gest, which  is  on  the  inside,  being  seven  inches  long  including  the 
claw,  which  is  near  three-fourths  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  almost 
as  broad ;  the  other  toe  is  but  four  inches  long,  and  is  without  a 
claw.  The  height  of  the  ostrich  is  usually  seven  feet,  from  the  head 
to  the  ground  ;  but  from  the  back  it  is  only  four :  'so  that  the  head 
and  the  neck  are  above  three  feet  long.  From  the  head  to  the  end 
of  the  tail,  when  the  neck  is  stretched  in  a  right  line,  it  is  seven  feet 
long.  One  of  the  wings,  with  the  feathers  stretched  out,  is  three 
feet  in  length.  The  plumage  is  generally  white  and  black,  though 
some  of  thejii  are  said  to  be  grey.  There  are  no  feathers  on  the  sides 
of  the  thighs,  nor  under  the  wings.  The  lower  half  of  the  neck  is 
covered  with  smaller  feathers  than  those  on  the  belly  and  back,  and 
the  head  and  upper  part  of  the  neck  are  covered  with  hair.  At  the 
end  of  each  wing,  there  is  a  kind  of  spur,  resembling  the  quill  of  a 
porcupine,  about  an  inch  long,  and  about  a  foot  lower  down  the 
wing  is  another  of  the  same  description,  but  something  smaller. 

The  ostrich  has  not,  like  most  other  birds,  feathers  of  various 
kinds ;  they  are  all  bearded  with  detached  hairs  or  filaments,  with- 
out consistence  and  reciprocal  adherence.  The  consequence  is,  that 
they  cannot  oppose  to  the  air  a  suitable  resistance,  and  therefore 
are  of  no  utility  in  flying,  or  in  directing  the  flight.  Besides  the 
peculiar  structure  of  her  wings,  the  ostrich  is  rendered  incapabls 
of  flight  by  her  enormous  size,  weighing  seventy-five  or  eighty 
pounds ;  a  weight  which  would  require  an  immense  power  of  wing 
tp  elevate  into  the  air. 

The  ostrich  is  a  native  only  of  the  torrid  regions  of  Africa  and 
Arabia,  and  has  furnished  the  sacred  writers  with  some  of  their 
most  beautiful  imagery.  The  following  descriptions  and  illustra- 
tions are  chiefly  selected  from  Professor  Paxton  and  Dr.  Harris. 

The  ostrich  was  aptly  called  by  the  ancients  a  lover  of  the  des- 
erts. Shy  and  timorous  in  no  common  degree,  she  retires  from  the 
cultivated  field,  where  she  is  disturbed  by  the  Arabian  shepherds 
and  husbandmen,  into  the  deepest  recesses  of  the  Sahara.  In 
those  dreary  wastes,  she  is  reduced  to  subsist  on  a  few  tufts  of 
coarse  grass,  which  here  and  there  languish  on  their  surface,  or  a 
few  other  solitary  plants  equally  destitute  of  nourishment,  and  in 
the  Psalmist's  phrase,  even  *  withered  before  they  are  grown  up.' 
To  this  dry  and  parched  food  may  perhaps  he  added,  the  great  va- 
riety of  land-snails  which  occasionally  cover  the  leaves  and  stalks 
of  these  herbs,  and  which  may  afford  her  some  refreshment.  Nor 
is  it  improbable,  that  she  sometimes  regales  herself  on  lizards  and 
serpents,  together  with  insects  and  reptiles  of  various  kinds.  Still, 
Jiowever,  considering  the  voracity  and  size  of  this  camel-bird,  (as 
Jt  is  called  in  the  East,)  it  is  won,deiful  how  the  little  one?  shpuld 


THE  OSTRICH.  149 

be  nourished  and  brought  up,  and  especially  how  those  of  fuller 
growth,  and  much  better  qualified  to  look  out  for  themselves  are 
able  to  subsist. 

The  attachment  of  this  bird  to  the  barren  solitudes  of  the  Sahara, 
is  frequently  alluded  to  in  the  Holy  Scriptures ;  particularly  in  the 
prophecies  of  Isaiah,  where  the  word  IONEH,  unfortunately  transla- 
ted owl  in  the  English  Bible,  ought  to  be  rendered  ostrich.  In  the 
splendid  palaces  of  Babylon,  so  long  the  scenes  of  joy  and  revelry, 
the  prophet  foretold,  that  the  shy  and  timorous  ostrich  should  fix 
her  abode  ;  than  which  a  greater  and  more  affecting  contrast  can 
scarcely  be  presented  to  the  mind. 

When  the  ostrich  is  provoked,  she  sometimes  makes  a  fierce, 
angry,  and  hissing  noise,  with  her  throat  inflated,  and  her  mouth 
open :  when  she  meets  with  a  timorous  adversary  that  opposes  but 
a  faint  resistance  to  her  assault,  she  chuckles  or  cackles  like  a  hen, 
seeming  to  rejoice  in  the  prospect  of  an  easy  conquest.  But  in  the 
silent  hours  of  night,  she  assumes  a  quite  different  tone,  and  makes 
a  very  doleful  and  hideous  noise,  which  sometimes  resembles  the 
roaring  of  a  lion  ;  and  at  other  times,  that  of  the  bull  and  the  ox. 
She  frequently  groans,  as  if  she  were  in  the  greatest  agonies  ;  an 
action  to  which  the  prophet  beautifully  alludes :  *  I  will  make  a 
mourning  like  the  ostrich'  Micah,  i.  8.  The  Hebrew  name  of  the 
bird  is  derived  from  a  verb  which  signifies  to  exclaim  with  a  loud 
voice,  and  may  therefore  be  attributed  with  sufficient  propriety  to 
the  ostrich,  whose  voice  is  loud  and  sonorous ;  especially,  as  the 
word  does  not  seem  to  denote  any  certain  determined  mode  of 
voice  or  sound  peculiar  to  any  one  particular  species  of  animals,  but 
one  that  may  be  applicable  to  them  all.  Dr.  Brown  says,  the  cry  of 
the  ostrich  resembles  the  voice  of  a  hoarse  child,  and  is  even  more 
dismal.  It  cannot,  then,  but  appear  mournful,  and  even  terrible,  to 
those  travellers  who  plunge  with  no  little  anxiety  into  those  im- 
mense deserts,  and  to  whom  every  living  creature,  man  not  except- 
ed,  is  an  object  of  fear,  and  a  cause  of  danger. 

Not  more  disagreeable,  and  even  alarming,  is  the  hoarse  moaning 
voice  of  the  ostrich,  however,  to  the  lonely  traveller  in  the  desert, 
than  were  the  speeches  of  Job's  friends  to  that  afflicted  man.  Of 
their  harsh  and  groundless  censures,  which  were  continually  grat- 
ing his  ears,  he  feelingly  complains :  *  I  am  a  brother  to  dragons, 
and  a  companion  to  owls  [ostriches].'  Like  these  melancholy  crea- 
tures that  love  the  solitary  place,  and  the  dark  retirement,  the  be- 
reaved and  mourning  patriarch  loved  to  dwell  alone,  that  he  might 
be  free  from  the  teasing  impertinence  of  his  associates,  and  pour 
out  his  sorrows  without  restraint.  But  he  made  a  wailing  also  like 
the  dragons,  and  a  mourning  like  the  ostriches:  his  condition  was 
as  destitute,  and  his  lamentations  as  loud  and  incessant  as  theirs. 
Or,  he  compares  to  those  birds  his  unfeeling  friends,  who,  instead 
of  pouring  the  balm  of  consolation  into  his  smarting  wounds,  added 
to  the  poignancy  of  his  grief  by  their  inhuman  conduct.  The  os- 
trich, even  in  a  domestic  state,  is  a  rude  and  fierce  animal ;  and  is 
13* 


150  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

said  to  point  her  hostility,  with  particular  virulence,  against  the  poor 
and  destitute  stranger  that  happens  to  come  in  her  way.  Not  sat- 
isfied with  endeavoring  to  push  him  down  by  running  furiously 
upon  him,  she  will  not  cease  to  peck  at  him  violently  with  her  bill, 
and  to  strike  at  him  with  her  feet,  and  will  sometime's  inflict  a  very 
serious  wound.  The  dispositions  and  behavior  of  Job's  friends 
and  domestics  were  equally  vexatious  and  afflicting;  and  how 
much  reason  he  had  to  complain,  will  appear  from  the  following 
statement :  'They  that  dwell  in  mine  house,  and  my  maidens,  count 
me  for  a  stranger ;  I  am  an  alien  in  their  sight.  I  called  my  ser- 
vant, and  he  gave  me  no  answer ;  my  breath  is  strange  to  my  wife, 
though  I  entreated  for  the  children's  sake  of  mine  own  body  ;  yea, 
young  children  despised  me,  all  my  inward  friends  abhorred  "me. 
Upon  my  right  hand  rise  the  youth  ;  they  push  away  my  feet,  and 
they  raise  up  against  me  the  ways  of  their  destruction.  They  mar 
rny  path,  they  set  forward  my  calamity,  they  have  no  helper,  "They 
come  upon  me  as  a  wide  breaking  in  of  waters,  in  the  desolation 
they  roli  themselves  upon  me,'  ch.  xxx.  12 — J4. 

There  is  a  very  correct  and  poetical  description  of  the  ostrich,  in 
the  thirty-ninth  chapter  of  the  book  of  Job. 

Our  translators  appear  to  have  been  influenced  by  the  vulgar  er- 
ror, that  the  ostrich  did  not  herself  hatch  her  eggs  by  sitting  on 
them,  but  left  them  to  the  heat  of  the  sun.  This,  however,  is  not 
the  fact.  She  usually  sits  upon  her  eggs  as  other  birds  do ;  but 
then  she  so  often  wanders,  and  so  far  in  search  of  food,  that  fre- 
quently the  eggs  are  addle,  by  means  of  her  long  absence  from 
them.  To  this  we  may  add,  that  when  she  has  left  her  nest,  wheth- 
er through  fear  or  to  seek  food,  if  she  light  upon  the  eggs  of  some 
other  ostrich,  she  sits  upon  them,  and  is  unmindful  of  her  own. 

*  On  the  least  noise  or  trivial  occasion,'  says  doctor  Shaw,  '  she 
forsakes  her  eggs,  or  her  young  ones,  to  which,  perhaps,  she  never 
returns  ;  or  if  she  does,  it  may  be  too  Jate  either  to  restore  life  to  the 
one,  or  to  preserve  the  lives  of  the  others.  Agreeable  to  this  ac- 
count, the  Arabs  meet  sometimes  with  whole  nests  of  these  eggs 
undisturbed  ;  some  of  them  are  sweet  and  good,  others  are  addle 
and  corrupted;  others,  again,  have  their  young  ones  of  different 
growth,  according  to  the  time,  it  may  be  presumed,  they  may  have 
been  forsaken  of  the  dam.  They  often  meet  with  a  few  of  the  little 
ones  no  bigger  than  well-grown  pullets,  half  starved,  straggling  and 
inoaning  about,  like  so  many  distressed  orphans  for  their  mother. 
In  this  manner  the  ostrich  may  he  said  to  be  hardened  against  her 
young  ones,  as  though  they  were  not  her's  ;  her  labor,  in  hatching  and 
Attending  them  so  lar,  fcemg  vain,  without  fear,  or  the  least  concern 
of  what  becomes  of  them  afterwards.  This  want  of  affection  is  al- 
so recorded  in  Lam.  iv.  3.  "  The  daughter  of  my  people  is  become 
cruel,  Jijie  ostriches  of  the  wilderness  ; "  that  is  by  apparently  de- 
asrting  their  own,  and  receiving  others  in  return.  Hence,  one  of 
the  great -causes  of  lamentation  was,  the  coming  in  of  strangers  and 
enemies  iuto  Zion,  and  possessing  it.  Thus,  in  the  twelfth  verse 


THE  OSTRICH.  151 

of  this  chapter,  it  is  said,  "  The  kings  of  the  earth,  and  all  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  world,  would  not  have  believed  that  the  adversary  and 
the  enemy  should  have  entered  into  the  gates  of  Jerusalem ;"  and 
in  ch.  v.  2,  "  Our  inheritance  is  turned  to  strangers,  our  houses  to- 
aliens." ' 

The  ostrich,  in  her  private  capacity,  is  not  loss  inconsiderate  and 
foolish,  particularly  in  the  choice  of  food,  which  is  often  highly  det- 
rimental and  pernicious  to  her ;  for  she  swallows  everything  greedi- 
ly and  indiscriminately,  whether  it  be  pieces  of  rags,  feather,  woody 
stone,  or  iron.  They  are  particularly  fond  of  their  own  ordure, 
which  they  greedily  eat  up  as  soon  as  it  is  voided :  no  less  fond  are 
they  of  the  dung  of  hens  and  other  poultry.  It  seems  as  if  their 
optic,  as  well  as  their  olfactory  nerves,  were  less  adequate  and  con- 
ducive to  their  safety  and  preservation,  than  in  other  creatures. 
The  Divine  Providence  in  this,  no  less  than  in  other  respects, '  hav- 
ing deprived  them  of  wisdom,  neither  hath  it  imparted  to  them  un- 
derstanding.' This  part  of  her  character  is  fully  admitted  by  Buf- 
fon,  who  describes  it  in  nearly  the  same  terms. 

Notwithstanding  the  stupidity  of  the  ostrich,  says  Dr.  Shaw,  its 
Creator  hath  amply  provided  for  its  safety,  by  endowing  it  with  ex- 
traordinary swiftness,  and  a  surprising  .apparatus  for  escaping  from 
its  enemy.  They,  *  when  they  raise  themselves  up  for  flight,  laugh 
at  the  horse  and  his  rider.'  They  afford  him  an  opportunity  only 
of  admiring  at  a  distance  the  extraordinary  agility,  and  the  state- 
liness  likewise,  of  their  motions,  the  richness  of  their  plumage, 
and  the  great  propriety  there  was  in  ascribing  to  them  an  expanded 
quivering  wing.  Nothing,  certainly,  can  be  more  entertaining  than 
such  a  sight ;  the  wings,  by  their  rapid  but  unwearied  vibrations, 
equally  serving  Jhfim  for  sails  and  oars ;  while  their  feet,  no  less  as- 
sisting in  conveying  them  out  of  sight,  are  no  less  insensible  of  fa- 
tigue.' 

The  surprising  swiftness  of  this  bird  is  expressly  mentioned  by 
Xenophon,  in  his  Anabasis;  for,  speaking  of  the  desert  of  Arabia, 
he  states  that  Uie  ostrich  is  frequently  seen  there  ;  that  '  none  could 
take  them,  the  horsemin  who  pursue  them  soon  giving  it  over ;  for 
they  escaped  far  away,  making  use  both  of  their  feet  to  rup,  and  of 
their  wings,  when  expanded,  as  a  sail  to  waft  them  along.'  This 
representation  is  confirmed  by  the  writer  of  a  voyage  to  Senegal, 
who  says,  *  She  sets  oft*  at  a  hard  gallop  ;  but,  after  being  exciied  a 
little,  sjie  expands  her  wings  as  if  to  catch  the  wind,  and  abandons 
herself  to  a  speed  so  great,  that  she  seems  not  to  touch  the  ground.' 
*  I  am  persuaded,'  continues  the  writer,  '  she  would  leave  far  behind 
the  swiftest  English  courser.'  Bufibn,  also,  admits  that  the  ostrich 
runs  faster  than  the  horse, 


152  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

THE  PEACOCK. 


OUR  translators  have  very  improperly  introduced  the  peacock  in- 
to Job  xxxix.  13,  as  the  bird  was  unknown  in  Syria  till  the  days  of 
Solomon.  In  the  first  'book  of  Kings  (ch.  x.  22),  and  the  parallel 
passage  of  the  second  of  Chronicles  (eh.  ix.  21),  it  is  enumerated 
among  the  costly  articles  imported  by  the  ships  of  Tarshish,  em- 
ployed by  the  Hebrew  monarch  to  enrich  his  country  with  the  pro- 
duce of  foreign  nations.  Let  any  one  attentively  survey  the  pea- 
cock in  all  the  glorious  display  of  the  prismatic  colors  in  his  train, 
cays  Parkhurst,  and  he  will  not  be  surprised  that  Solomon's  mari- 
ners, who  cannot  be  supposed  ignorant  of  their  master's  taste  for 
natural  history,  should  bring  some  of  these  wonderful  birds  with 
them,  from  their  southern  expedition. 

The  peacock  is  a  bird  originally  of  India,  aud  thence  brought  in- 


THE  OWL. 


153 


to  Persia  and  Media.     The  fleet  of  Solomon  might  easily  procure 
it,  either  from  India  itself,  or  from  Persia. 

The  peacock  is  admitted  to  be  one  of  the  most  beautiful  birds  of 
the  feathered  tribes.  The  feathers  of  its  tail  are  frequently  four  feet 
in  length,  and  when  expanded,  present  a  mixture  of  the  most  de- 
lightful colors.  Its  head,  neck,  and  breast,  are  of  a  beautiful  blue 
color;  the  back  and  upper  part  of  the  wings  are  light  ash,  mixed 
with  black  stripes;  and  on  its  head  it  carries  a  plume  of  greenish 
feathers.  The  dispositions  of  the  peacock,  however,  are  of  a  very 
different  character  from  its  plumage ;  and  the  common  people  of 
Italy  are  said  to  characterize  it  truly,  who  say  it  has  the  plumage 
of  an  angel,  and  the  voice  of  a  devil.  The  loud  scream  of  its  voice 
grates  unpleasantly  on  the  ear;  and  its  insatiable  gluttony,  and 
spirit  of  depredation,  more  than  counterbalance  the  beauty  of  its 
external  form. 


THE    OWL. 


IF  the  reader  will  turn  to  the  account  of  the  ostrich,  he  will  see 
that  we  have  referred  several  passages  of  scripture  to  that  bir<J, 
which,  in  our  translations  of  the  Bible,  are  interpreted  of  the  owl, 


154  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

In  addition  to  these  passages,  there  are  others  in  which  our  version 
introduces  the  owl  without  reason,  as  the  original  writers  no  doubt 
intended  birds  of  another  description. 

The  race  of  owls  presents  several  varieties,  all  equally  cruel  and 
rapacious ;  and  who  add  to  their  savage  disposition  the  further  re- 
proach of  treachery,  by  carrying  on  all  their  depredations  by  night. 
Thus,  as  Goldsmith  remarks,  there  seems  no  link  in  Nature's  chain 
broken,  no  where  a  dead,  inactive  repose  ;  but  every  place,  every 
season,  every  hour  of  the  day  and  night,  is  bustling  with  life,  and 
furnishing  instances  of  industry,  self-defence,  and  invasion. 

The  owl  tribe,  however  they  may  differ  in  their  size  and  plum- 
age, agree  in  their  general  characteristics  of  preying  by  night,  and 
having  their  eyes  formed  for  nocturnal  vision.  In  the  eyes  of  all 
animals,  the  Author  of  their  being  has  made  a  complete  provision 
either  to  shut  out  too  much  light,  or  to  admit  a  sufficiency,  by  the 
dilation  and  contraction  of  the  pupil.  As  in  the  eyes  of  tigers  and 
cats,  that  are  formed  for  a  life  of  nocturnal  depredation,  there  is  a 
quality  in  the  retina  that  takes  in  the  rays  of  light  so  copiously  as  to 
permit  their  seeing  in  places  almost  totally  dark  ;  so,  in  owls,  there 
is  the  same  conformation  of  that  organ ;  and  though,  like  us,  they 
cannot  see  in  a  total  exclusion  of  light,  yet  they  are  sufficiently 
quick-sighted  at  times  when  we  remain  in  total  obscurity.  Besides 
this,  there  is  an  irradiation  on  the  back  of  the  eye,  and  the  very 
iris  itself  has  a  faculty  of  reflecting  the  rays  of  light,  so  as  to  assist 
vision  in  the  gloomy  places  these  birds  are  found  to  frequent. 

Predicting  the  desolation  of  Idumea,  the  prophet  Isaiah  says,  her 
palaces  shall  be  a  resting  place  for  '  the  screech-owl '  (Isaiah  xxxiv. 
14),  whose  horrid  and  terrifying  cry  would  form  a  sad  contrast  to 
the  melody  of  the  harp  and  the  tabret,  which  then  resounded  with- 
in their  walls.  But  to  show,  probably^ the  extent  and  permanency 
of  that  desolation  which  was  threatened,  the  prophet  in  the  next 
verse  represents  the  devoted  country  as  becoming  the  constant 
abode  of  birds  of  prey,  among  which  the  one  we  are  describing  was 
to  be  found :  '  There  shall  the  great  owl  make  her  nest,  and  lay 
and  hatch,  and  gather  under  her  shadow,' 


THE   PARTRIDGE. 


155 


THE    PARTRIDGE, 


THE  Hebrew  name  of  this  bird,  KER,  was  evidently  taken  froni 

:  nnto 


its  note — 


'  I  love  to  hear  the  cur 

Of  the  night-loving  partridge.' 


Forskal  mentions  a  partridge  whose  name  in  Arabic  is  kurr ;  and 
Latham  says,  that  in  the  province  of  Andalusia,  in  Spain,  its  name 
is  churr :  both  taken,  no  doubt,  like  the  Hebrew,  from  its  note.  As 
this  bird  is  so  well  known  in  every  part  of  the  world,  a  particular 
description  is  unnecessary. 

There  are  only  two  passages  of  scripture  in  which  the  partridge 
is  mentioned  ;  but  these  will  repay  an  attentive  examination.  The 
first  occurs  in  the  history  of  David,  where  he  expostulates  with 
Saul  concerning  his  unjust  and  foolish  pursuit  of  him  :  '  The  king 
of  Israel  is  come  out  to  seek  a  flea,  as  when  one  doth  hunt  a  part- 
ridge on  the  mountains,'  1  Sam.  xxvi.  20. 

The  learned  Bochart  objects  to  the  partridge  in  this  place,  and 
contends  that  the  ker  is  more  likely  to  be  the  woodcock,  since  the 
partridge  is  not  a  mountain  bird.  This,  however,  is  a  mistake :  there 
is  a  species  of  the  partridge  which  exactly  answers  to  the  description 
of  David  ;  and  those  of  Barakonda,  in  particular,  are  said  to  choose 
the  highest  rocks  and  precipices  for  their  residence.  The  method 
iby  which  Dr.  Shaw  states  the  Arabs  to  hunt  the  partridge,  affords  a 
lively  comment  on  the  words  of  the  Psalmist :  '  The  Arabs  have 
another,  though  a  more  laborious,  method  of  catching  these  birds  ; 
for,  observing  that  they  become  languid  and  fatigued  after  they  have 
been  hastily  put  up  twice  or  thrice,  they  immediately  run  in  upon 


15C 


SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 


them,  and  knock  them  down  with  their  ztnoattys,  or  bludgeons.' 
It  was  precisely  in  this  manner  that  Saul  hunted  David,  coming 
hastily  upon  him,  and  putting  hirn  up  from  time  to  time,  in  hopes 
he  should  at  length,  by  frequent  repetitions  of  it,  be  able  to  destroy 
him. 

In  addition  to  this  method  of  taking  the  partridge,  Dr.  Shaw  states, 
that  the  Arabs  are  well  acquainted  with  that  mode  of  catching  them, 
which  is  called  tunnelling ;  and  to  make  the  capture  the  greater, 
they  will  sometimes  place  behind  the  net  a  cage,  with  some  tame 
ones  within  it,  which,  by  their  perpetual  chirping  and  calling,  quick- 
3y  bring  down  the  coveys  that  are  within  hearing,  and  thereby  de- 
coy great  numbers  of  them.  This,  he  remarks,  may  lead  us  into  the 
right  interpretation  of  Eccles.  xi.  30,  which  we  render  Mike  as  a 
partridge  taken  [and  kept]  in  a  cage,  so  is  the  heart  of  the  proud  ; 
•but  it  should  be,  'Like  a  decoy  partridge  in  a  cage,  so  is,'  &c. 

The  other  passage  in  which  this  bird  is  mentioned,  is  Jer.  xvii. 
11,  '  As  the  partridge  sitteth  on  eggs,  and  hatcheth  them  not ;  so  he 
that  getteth  riches,  and  not  by  right,  shall  leave  them  in  the  midst 
of  his  days,  and  at  his  end  shall  be  a  fool.'  It  seems  to  be  clear, 
says  Mr,  Taylor,  that  this  bird  sitteth  on  eggs  not  its  own,  to  answer 
to  the  getting  of  riches  not  by  right ;  from  these  eggs  it  is  driven 
away,  leaves  them  in  the  midst  of  his  days,  before  the  time  for  hatch- 
ing is  expired,  But  why  should  it  be'said  of  the  partridge,  rather 
than  of  any  other  bird,  that  it  sitteth  and  hatcheth  not?  The  reason 
is  plain,  when  it  is  known,  that  this  bird's  nest  being  made  on  the 
ground,  the  eggs  are  frequently  broken  by  the  foot  of  man,  or  other 
•animals,  and  she  is  often  obliged  to  quit  them  by  the  presence  of 
intruders,  which  chills  the  eggs,  and  renders  them  unfruitful.  Rain 
and  moisture  also  may  spoil  them.  Observing  that  Buffon  makes 
a  separate  species  of  the  Barlavella,  or  Greek  partridge,  Mr.  Taylor 
offers  that  as  the  proper  bird  meant  in  these  passages.  Belon  in- 
forms us,  'that  the  bartavella  keeps  ordinarily  among  rocfo ;  but  has 
the  instinct  to  descend  into  the  plain  to  make  its  nest,  in  order  that 
the  young  may  find,  at  their  birth,  a  ready  subsistence.'  'It  has 
another  analogy  with  the  common  hen,  which  is,  to  sit  upon  (or 
hatch)  the  eggs  of  strangers,  for  want  of  its  own.  This  remark  is  of 
long  standing,  since  it  occurs  in  the  sacred  books.'  Now,  if,  in  the 
absence  of  the  proper  owner,  this  Bartavella  partridge  sits  on  the 
eggs  of  a  stranger,  when  that  stranger  returns  to  her  nest,  and  drives 
away  the  intruder  before  she  can  hatch  them,  the  partridge  so  ex- 
pelled resembles  a  man  in  low  circumstances,  who  has  possessed 
himself  for  a  time  of  the  property  of  another,  but  is  forced  to  relin- 
quish his  acquisition  before  he  can  render  it  profitable ;  which  is 
the  simile  of  the  prophet,  and  agrees,  too,  with  this  place. 


THE  COCK  AND  HEN.  157 


THE    COCK    AND    HEN. 

THESE  well-known  domestic  birds  do  not  appear  to  have  been 
much  known  to  the  Israelites,  at  any  period  of  their  history  ;  since 
the  Hebrew  Bible  does  not  so  much  as  furnish  a  name  for  them, 
and  they  are  only  once  mentioned  in  the  writings  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament. 

The  strong  affection  and  tender  care  which  the  hen  displays  for 
her  young,  are  so  well  known  as  to  have  become  proverbial. 

It  is  to  these  qualities  in  the  character  of  the  domestic  hen,  that 
our  Lord  alludes,  in  his  pathetic  address  to  the  once  *  holy  city :' 
— *  O  Jerusalem,  Jerusalem,  thou  that  killest  the  prophets,  and  ston- 
est  them  which  are  sent  unto  thee,  how  often  would  I  have  gath- 
ered thy  children  together,  even  as  a  hen  gatheretji  her  chickens 
under  her  wings,  and  ye  would  not !  Behold,  your  house  is  left 
unto  you  desolate,'  a  very  beautiful  image,  denoting  affection  and 
protection.  When  the  hen  sees  a  bird  of  prey  coming,  she  makes 
a  noise  to  assemble  her  chickens,  that  she  may  cover  them  with 
her  wings  from  the  danger.  The  Roman  eagle  is  about  to  fall  upon 
the  Jewish  state ;  nothing  can  prevent  this  but  their  conversion  to 
God  through  Christ ;  Jesus  cries  throughout  the  land,  publishing 
the  gospel  of  reconciliation ;  they  would  not  assemble,  and  the  Ro- 
man eagle  came  and  destroyed  them.  How  long  had  these  thank- 
less and  unholy  people  been  the  objects  of  his  tenderest  cares !  For 
more  than  two  thousand  years,  they  engrossed  the  most  peculiar 
regards  of  the  most  beneficent  Providence;  and  during  the  three 
years  of  our  Lord's  public  ministry,  his  preaching  and  miracles  had 
but  one  object  and  aim,  the  instruction  and  salvation  of  this  thought- 
less people.  For  their  sakes,  he  who  was  rich  became  poor,  that 
they  through  his  poverty,  might  be  rich  ;  for  their  sakes  he  made 
himself  of  no  reputation,  and  took  upon  him  the  form  of  a  servant, 
and  became  obedient  unto  death,  even  the  death  of  the  cross !  He 
died  that  THEY  might  not  perish,  but  have  everlasting  life.  Thus,  to 
save  their  life,  he,  freely  abandoned  his  own. 


14 


158  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 


THE  QUAIL. 


THERE  has  been  a  difference  of  opinion  among  learned  men,  with 
respect  to  what  creature  is  intended  by  the  Hebrew  word  which 
we  render  quails,  Exodus  xvi.  13,  &c. 

It  would  appear,  however,  that  the  quail  is  a  bird  of  passage,  and 
about  the  size  of  the  turtle-dove.  Hasselquist  states  that  that  it'is 
plentiful  near  the  shores  of  the  Dead  Sea  and  the  Jordan,  and  also 
in  the  deserts  of  Arabia. 

On  two  occasions  the  demands  of  the  murmuring  Hebrews  were 
supplied  with  quails;  and,  in  each  case,  the  event  is  distantly  refer- 
red to  the  miraculous  interposition  of  God,  Exod.  xvi.  12,  13; 
Numb.  xi.  31.  On  the  former  occasion,  the  birds  were  scattered 
about  the  camp  only  for  a  single  day ;  but,  on  the  latter,  they  came 
up  from  the  sea  for  an  entire  month.  The  great  numbers  of  them 
which  are  said  to  have  been  provided  for  the  people,  has  beer,  re- 
garded as  almost  incredible,  but  without  sufficient  reason,  as  may 
be  shown,  without  resorting  to  the  supposition  that  they  were  cre- 
ated for  this  express  occasion.  Varro  asserts,  that  turtle*  and  quails 
return  from  their  migrations  into  Italy  in  immense  numbers ;  and 
Solinus  adds,  that  when  they  come  within  sight  of  land,  they  rush 
forward  in  large  bodies,  and  with  so  great  impetuosity  as  often  to 
endanger  the  safety  of  navigators,  by  alighting  upon  the  sails  in  the 
night,  and  by  their  weight  oversetting  the  vessels.  Hence  it  ap- 
pears, that  this  part  of  the  narrative  is  perfectly  credible ;  and  that 
the  miracle  consisted  in  the  immense  flocks  being  directed  to  a  par- 
ticular spot,  in  the  extreme  emergency  of  the  people,  by  means  of 
« a  wind  from  the  Lord,'  Numb.  xi.  31. 


SECTION  III. 
WATER   BIRDS 

THE  CRANE. 


THIS  bird  is  now  unknown  in  England,  and  the  accounts  of  its 
size  which  are  furnished  by  naturalists  and  travellers  vary  exceed*- 
ingly.  Willoughby  and  Pennant  make  it  from  five  to  six  feet  long, 
from  the  beak  to  the  tail ;  and  others  state  that  it  is  above  five  feet 
high.  On  the  contrary,  Bresson  describes  it  as  something  less  than 
the  brown  stork,  about  three  feet  high,  and  about  four  from  the  beak 
to  the  tail.  The  latter  writer  is  generally  admitted  to  be  the  most 
correct ;  although  the  one  he  describes  may  possibly  have  been  a 
small  bird.  The  figure  of  the  crane  is  tall  and  slender,  with  a  long 
neck,  and  long  legs.  It  is  very  social  in  its  habits,  and  usually  lives 
in  flocks  amounting  to  fifty  or  sixty  in  number. 

Cranes  are  birds  of  passage,  and  they  are  seen  to  depart  and  re- 


160 


SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 


turn  regularly,  at  those  seasons  when  their  provision  invites  or  re- 
pels them.  They  generally  leave  Europe  at  the  latter  end  of  Au- 
tumn, and  return  in  the  beginning  of  the  summer.  In  the  inland 
parts  of  the  continent,  they  are  seen  crossing  the  country  in  flocks 
of  fifty  or  a  hundred,  making  from  the  northern  regions  towards 
the  south.  In  these  journeys  they  sometimes  soar  so  high,  howev- 
er, as  to  be  entirely  out  of  sight;  but  then  their  tract  is  to  be  dis- 
tinctly ascertained  by  their  loud  and  peculiar  clangor.  To  the  in- 
stinctive precaution  of  these  birds  in  securing  themselves  against 
the  miseries  of  famine,  by  migrating  from  one  part  of  the  earth  to 
another,  there  is  a  reference  in  Jer.  viii.  7,  wher,e  the  blindness  of 
the  Jewish  nation  to  the  indications  of  approaching  judgments  is 
forcibly  reproved  :  '  The  crane  and  the  swallow  observe  the  time  of 
their  coming;  but  my  people  know  not  the  judgment  of  the 
Lord.' 


THE  STORK. 


... 


THE  external  appearance  of  the  stork  differs  little  from  that  of  the 
crane.  It  is  of  the  same  size  ;  and  has  the  same  formation  as  to  the 
bill,  neck,  legs,  and  body,  except  that  it  is  something  more  corpulent. 
Its  differences  are  but  very  slight ;  such  as  the  color,  which  m  the 
crane  is  ash  and  black,  but  in  the  stork  is  white  and  brown.  The 
nails  of  the  toes  of  the  stork,  also,  are  very  peculiar,  not  being 


THE  STORK.  161 

clawed  like  those  of  other  birds,  but  flat,  like  the  nails  of  a  man. 
Its  true  distinctions,  however,  are  to  be  taken  rather  from  its  man- 
ner than  its  form.  The  crane  has  a  loud  piercing  voice ;  the  stork 
is  silent,  and  produces  no  other  noise  than  the  clucking  of  its  under 
chap  against  the  upper :  the  crane  has  a  strange  convolution  of  the 
windpipe  through  the  breast  bone  ;  the  stork's  is  formed  hi  the  usual 
manner :  the  crane  feeds  mostly  upon  vegetables  and  grain ;  the 
stork  preys  entirely  upon  frogs,  fishes,  birds,  and  serpents :  the  crane 
avoids  towns  and  populous  places;  the  stork  lives  always  in  or 
nearthenj:  the  crane  lays  but  two  eggs,  and  the  stork  generally 
four.  These  are  distinctions  fully  sufficient  to  mark  the  species, 
notwithstanding  the  shnilitude  of  their  form. 

It  was  probably  on  account  of  the  description  of  food  upon  which 
this  bird  preys,  that  it  was  prohibited  as  an  article  of  food  to  the 
Jewish  people,  Lev.  xi.  19,  &-c. 

The  Hebrew  name  of  the  stork,  is  strikingly  characteristic  of  its 
disposition,  signifying  benignity  or  affection,  for  which  it  is  remarka- 
ble, as  is  attested  by  the  most  unexceptionable  witnesses. 

Parkhurst  has  given  an  interesting  description  of  the  stork  from 
the  Inspector,  a  periodical  paper  ascribed  to  that  eminent  naturalist, 
Sir  John  Hill,  which  sets  this  feature  in  its  character  in  a  strong 
and  beautiful  light. 

'  The  two  parents  feed  and  guard  each  brood ;  one  always  re- 
maining on  it,  while  the  other  goes  for  food.  They  keep  the  young 
ones  much  longer  in  the  nest  than  any  other  bird  ;  and  after  they 
have  led  them  out  of  it  by  day,  they  bring  them  back  at  night ; 
preserving  it  as  their  natural  and  proper  home. 

'  When  they  first  take  out  the  young,  they  practise  them  to  fly  ; 
and  they  lead  them  to  the  marshes,  and  to  the  hedge-sides,  point- 
ing them  out  the  frogs,  and  serpents,  and  lizards,  which  are  their 
proper  food ;  and  they  will  seek  out  toads,  which  they  never  eat, 
and  take  great  pains  to  make  the  young  distinguish  them.'  At  the 
time  of  their  return,  after  having  visited  some  warmer  climate 
during  the  winter  months,  this  writer  states,  that '  it  is  not  un- 
common to  see  several  of  the  old  birds,  which  are  tired  and  feeble 
with  t-he  long  flight,  supported  at  times  on  the  back  of  the  young ; 
and  the  peasants  speak  of  it  as  a  certainty,  that  many  of  these  are 
when  they  return  to  their  home,  laid  carefully  in  the  old  nests,  and 
fed  and  cherished  by  the  young  ones,  which  they  reared  with  so 
much  care  during  the  spring  before.' 

To  the  protection  which  the  stork  affords  her  young,  there  is 
evidently  an  allusion  in  Job  xxxix,  13:  'The  wing  of  the  ostrich 
is  quivering  or  expanded  :  [but]  is  it  the  wing  of  the  stork  and  its 
plumage?'  That  is,  is  it,  like  that,  employed  in  protecting  and 
providing  for  the  creature's  offspring?  No  :  for  '  she  (the  ostrich) 
depositeth  her  eggs  in  the  earth,  and  warmeth  them  on  the  sand, 
and  forgetteth  that  the  foot  may  crush  them,  and  that  the  wild 
beast  of  the  field  may  break  them.'  This  leads  us  to  notice  the  as- 

14* 
c 

. 


162 


SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 


sertion  of  the  Psalmist,  that  'the  fir  trees  are  the  house  of  the  stork,' 
Ps.  civ.  17. 

Like  the  crane,  the  stork  is  a  bird  of  passage  ;  and  to  its  periodi- 
cal migration  the  prophet  Jeremiah  refers,  ch.  viii.  7.  Shaw  fur- 
nishes us  with  a  proof  of  their  surprising  instinct  in  preparing  for 
their  journey,  which  is  worthy  of  notice.  *  It  is  observed  of  the 
storks,  when  they  *  know  their  appointed  time,'  that,  for  about  the 
sjface  of  a  fortnight  before  they  pass  from  one  country  to  another, 
they  constantly  resort  together,  from  all  the  circumjacent  parts,  in 
a  certain  plain  ;  and  there,  forming  themselves  once  every  day  into 
a  douwanne,  or  council  (according  to  the  phrase  of  these  Eastern 
nations,)  are  said  to  determine  the  exact  time  of  their  departure, 
and  the  place  of  their  future  abodes.' 


THE  PELICAN. 


THE  Hebrew  name  of  this  curious  bird  is  evidently  tafcren  from 
its  manner  of  discharging  the  contents  of  its  bag  or  pouch,  fo^r  the 
purpose  of  satisfying  its  own  hunger,  or  that  of  its  young. 


THE  PELICAN.  163 

The  Pelican  is  much  larger  than  the  swan,  and  something  re- 
sembles it  in  shape  and  color.  The  principal  difference,  and  that 
which  distinguishes  this  bird  from  all  others,  is  its  enormous  bill 
and  extraordinary  pouch.  From  the  point  of  the  bill  to  the  open- 
ing of  the  mouth,  there  is  a  length  of  fifteen  inches;  and  under 
the  chap  is  a  bag,  reaching  the  entire  length  of  the  bill  to  the  neck, 
and  capable,  it  is  said,  of  holding  fifteen  quarts  of  water.  When 
empty,  this  pouch  is  not  seen  ;  but  when  filled,  its  great  bulk  and 
singular  appearance  may  easily  be  conceived.  The  Pelican,  says 
Labat,  has  strong  wings,  furnished  with  thick  plumage  of  an  ash 
color,  as  are  the  rest  of  the  feathers  over  the  whole  body.  Its  eyes 
are  very  small  when  compared  to  the  size  of  its  head ;  there  is  a 
sadness  in  its  countenance,  and  its  whole  air  is  melancholy  ;  it  is 
as  dull  and  reluctant  in  its  motions  as  the  flamingo  is  sprightly  and 
active.  It  is  slow  of  flight;  and  when  it  rises  to  fly,  performs  it 
with  difficulty  and  labor;  nothing,  as  it  would  seem,  but  the  spur 
of  necessity,  could  make  these  birds  change  their  situation,  or  in- 
duce them  to  ascend  into  the  air :  but  they  must  either  starve  or 
fly.  When  they  have  raised  themselves  about  thirty  or  forty  feet 
above  the  surface  of  the  sea,  they  turn  their  head  with  one  eye 
downwards,  and  continue  to  fly  in  that  posture.  As  soon  as  they 
perceive  a  fish  sufficiently  near  the  surface,  they  dart  down  Upon 
it  with  the  swiftness  of  an  arrow  eize  it  with,  unerring  certainty, 
and  store  it  up  in  their  pouch.  They  then  rise  again,  though  not 
without  great  labor,  and  continue  hovering  and  fishing,  with  their 
head  on  one  side  as  before. 

In  feeding  its  young,  the  pelican  squeezes  the  food  deposited  in 
its  bag  into  their  mouths,  by  strongly  compressing  it  upon  its  breast 
with  the  bill ;  an  action,  says  Shaw,  which  might  well  give  occa- 
sion to  the  received  tradition  and  report,  that  the  pelican,  in  feeding 
her  young,  pierced  her  own  breast,  and  nourished  them  with  her 
blood. 

The  writer  of  the  hundred-and-second  psalm  alludes  to  the 
lonely  situation  of  the  pelican  in  the  wildernesss,  as  illustrative 
of  the  poignancy  of  his  own  grief,  at  witnessing  the  desolation  of 
his  country,  and  the  prostration  of  her  sacred  altars. 


164  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 


THE  CORMORANT. 

THIS  bird,  which  was  unclean  to  the  Hebrews  (Lev.  xi.  17; 
Deut.  xiv,  17)  is  about  the  size  of  a  large  Muscovy  duck,  and  may 
be  distinguished  from  all  other  birds  of  this  kind,  by  its  four  toes 
being  united  together  by  membranes,  and  by  the  middle  toe  being 
toothed  or  notched,  like  a  saw,  to  assist  it  in  holding  its  fishy  prey. 
Its  head  and  neck  are  of  a  sooty  blackness,  and  the  body  thick  and 
heavy,  more  inclining  in  figure  to  that  of  the  goose  than  the  gull. 
The  bill  is  straight,  till  near  the  end,  where  the  upper  chap  bends 
into  a  book. 

But  notwithstanding  the  seeming  heaviness  of  its  make,  there  are 
few  birds  more  powerfully  predacious  than  the  cormorant.  Form- 
ed with  the  grossest  appetites,  this  unclean  bird  has  the  most  rank 
and  disagreeable  smell,  and  is  more  foetid,  even  when  in  its  most 
healthful  state,  than  carrion.  Its  form,  says  an  ingenious  writer,  is 
disagreeable ;  its  voice  is  hoarse  and  croaking  ;  and  all  its  qualities 
obscene.  No  wonder,  then,  that  Milton  should  make  Satan  per- 
sonate this  bird,  when  he  sent  him  upon  the  basest  purposes,  to 
survey  with  pain  the  beauties  of  Paradise,  and  to  sit  devising  death 
on  the  tree  of  life.  It  has  been  remarked,  indeed,  of  our  poet,  that 
the  making  a  water  fowl  perch  on  a  tree,  implied  no  great  ac- 
quaintance with  the  history  of  nature.  But,  in  vindication  of  Mil- 
ton, it  must  be  observed,  that  Aristotle  expressly  says,  the  cormo- 
rant is  the  only  water  fowl  that  sits  on  trees ;  so  that  our  epic  bard 
seems  to  have  been  as  deeply  versed  in  natural  history  as  in  criti- 
cism. 

The  cormorant  is  trained  up  in  China,  and  other  parts  of  the 
world,  for  the  purpose  of  taking  fish,  after  which  it  dives  with  great 
dexterity  and  perseverance. 


SECTION  IV. 
DUBIOUS   BIRDS. 

THE  CUCKOO. 

WE  believe  that  the  bird  called  in  Hebrew  shacheph,  and  in  our 
version  '  cuckoo,'  has  never  yet  been  properly  identified.  Bochart, 
and  the  versions  generally,  decide  in  favor  of  the  sea-mew ;  but  this 
can  hardly  be  admitted,  since  the  shacheph  is  placed  by  the  Hebrew 
legislator,  not  among  water  birds,  but  among  those  of  the  air,  and 
also  among  birds  of  prey,  Levit.  xi.  16.  The  latter  circumstance 
seems  also  decisive  against,  the  bird  which  has  been  made  to  take 
its  place  in  the  English  Bible.  Dr.  Shaw  thinks  that  the  bird  in- 
tended is  a  granivorous  and  gregarious  bird,  of  which  he  gives  a 
particular  account,  and  also  an  engraving. 


THE    HERON. 


A  WIDE  latitude  has  been  taken  in  the  rendering  of  the  Hebrew 
anaph ;  some  critics  interpreting  it  of  the  crane,  others  of  the  cur- 


166  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

lew,  some  of  the  kite,  others  of  the  woodcock,  some  of  the  peacock, 
some  of  the  parrot,  and  some  of  the  falcon.  But  let  not  the  reader 
be  alarmed  at  this  diversity  of  rendering,  since  it  is  the  necessary 
consequence  of  the  scantiness  of  references  to  the  bird  in  the  sacred 
text,  and  the  absence  of  all  description  of  its  character  and  quali- 
ties, in  those  passages  in  which  it  is  spokei)  of.  The  truth  is,  that 
it  is  only  referred  to  in  the  catalogue  of  birds  prohibited  by  the  Mo- 
saic code,  (Lev.  xi.  19  ;  Deut.  xiv.  18  ;)  and  it  is  only  from  the  im- 
port of  its  name,  or  the  known  character  of  the  birds  with  which  it 
is  grouped,  that  we  can  form  any  conjecture  of  its  specific  charac- 
ter. That  the  creature  intended  is  some  species  of  water  bird,  there 
can  be  little  doubt,  if  we  give  the  sacred  writer  any  credit  for  pro- 
priety in  his  grouping,  or  system  in  his  arrangement ;  but  what  that 
species  may  be,  we  are  unable  to  decide.  The  Hebrew  name  is 
from  a  root  which  signifies  to  breathe  short,  or  snort  through  the  nos- 
trils, as  in  anger ;  and  as  the  heron  is  said  to  be  of  a  very  irritable 
disposition,  it  may,  perhaps,  be  the  bird  intended. 


THE  SWAN. 


167 


THE    SWAN 


IT  is  extremely  uncertain  what  bird  is  intended  by  the  Hebrew, 
in  (Lev.  xi.  18),  rendered  by  our  translators,  the  swan.  The  same 
word  is  used  in  a  subsequent  verse  to  denote  the  mole,  according  to 
our  version,  but  more  probably,  as  Bochart  has  shown,  the  chame- 
leon. The  root  from  which  the  word  is  derived,  signifies  to  breathe, 
respire,  &c.;  and  Geddes  remarks,  that  if  etymology  were  to  be  our 
guide,  it  would  seem  to  point  to  a  well-known  quality  in  the  swan, 
that  of  being  able  to  respire  a  long  time,  with  its  bill  and  neck  en- 
tirely under  water,  and  even  plunged  n  the  mud. 


CHAPTER   IV. 


FISHES. 

THERE  are  but  few  references  to  the  subject  of  Ichthyology  in 
the  inspired  writings.  The  reasons  are  obvious :  the  Jews  being  an 
agricultural  people,  fish  formed  no  considerable  part  of  their  food  ; 
nor  could  they  furnish  any  striking  objects  of  comparison  or  illustra- 
tion to  the  sacred  writers,  as  in  the  case  of  quadrupeds  and  birds. 

The  well-known  biblical  appellations  are  two  words  expressive 
of  their  amazing  fecundity:*  and  the  latter  of  their  rapid  motion. 
In  Gen.  i.  21,  the  word  taninin,  rendered  in  our  English  Bibles, 
*  great  whales,'  seems  used  to  describe  fish  of  the  largest  description, 
without  being  restricted  to  any  particular  species. 

There  seems  to  be  four  divisions  of  the  aquatic  tribes,  strongly 
marked  in  nature,  which  are  usually  called  the  spinous  or  bony  kind  ; 
— the  cartilaginous,  or  those  which  have  gristles  instead  of  bones ; 
—the  cetaceous  tribe,  or  those  of  the  whale  kind; — and  the  crustace- 
ous,  or  shell  fish. 

Fish  was  the  common  food  of  the  Egyptians.  Hence  we  may 
see  how  distressing  was  the  infliction  which  turned  the  waters  of 
the  river  into  blood,  and  occasioned  the  death  of  the  fish,  Exod.  vii. 
18 — 21.  Their  sacred  stream  became  so  polluted  as  to  be  unfit  for 
drink,  for  bathing,  and  for  other  uses  of  water  to  which  they  were 
superstitiously  devoted,  (ch.  ii.  5 ;  vii.  15 ;  viii.  20 ;)  and  themselves 
obliged  to  nauseate  what  was  the  usual  food  of  the  common  peo- 
ple, and  held  sacred  by  the  priests. 

From  Neh.  xiii.  16,  we  learn,  that  in  the  time  of  Nehemiab,  the 
Tyrians  brought  fish  in  considerable  quantities  to  Jerusalem,  for 
purchasing  which  on  the  Sabbath-day,  that  zealous  patriot  reprov- 
ed the  elders  of  the  Jews.  As  the  people  of  Tyre  were  remarka- 
ble for  their  skill  in  maritime  affairs,  it  is  impossible  to  say  how  far 
their  fisheries  might  extend  ;  but  from  Le  Bruyn  we  ascertain,  that 
fish  in  large  numbers,  and  of  excellent  quality,  were  to  be  procured 
in  the  neighborhood  of  their  own  city.  Nor  should  we  omit  to  no- 
tice, in  justification  of  John  xxi.  11,  that  the  sea  of  Tiberias  was 
well  stocked  with  fish  of  a  very  large  size. 

The  narrative  of  Jonah's  extraordinary  preservation  from  death, 
when  thrown  overboard  by  the  terrified  mariners,  has  furnished 

*  The  Abbe  Pluche  shows,  from  Leuwenboek,  that  a  single  cod,  though  not  of  the  larg- 
est size,  contained  9,334,000  eggs  ;  and  observes,  that  though  a  common  carp  is  far  from 
having  such  a  number  of  eggs,  yet  the  quantity  of  them'  is  so  amazing,  even  at  the  first 
fiance,  that'jt  contributes  very  much  to  justify  the  above  calculation. — Nature  Displayed, 
vol.  i.  p.  230, 231, 


372  SCRIPTURE   NATURAL  HISTORY. 

ample  materials  for  the  cavils  of  the  infidel,  and  for  the  specula- 
tions of  the  philosopher  and  the  critic.  In  the  sacred  text,  the  par- 
ticular fish  which  was  rendered  the  preserver  of  the  disobedient 
prophet,  is  not  specified ;  although  the  Septuagint  translators  have 
inserted  the  whale,  and  the  evangelists,  in  recording  our  Saviour's 
words  relative  to  the  event  and  its  typical  character,  have  used  the 
same  word.  It  by  no  means  follows  from  this,  however,  that  the 
writers  of  the  gospels  designed  to  give  their  sanction  to  this  inter- 
pretation :  the  LXX  being  the  version  in  common  use  among  their 
countrymen,  they  quoted  it  without  alteration,  where  its  deviation 
from  the  original  involved  no  serious  consequences. 

Although  the  whale  is  the  largest  of  all  known  fish,  its  gullet  is 
too  small  to  permit  the  passage  of  a  human  body  through  it,  and 
therefore  we  cannot,  without  the  supposition  of  an  additional  mira- 
cle, admit  this  to  be  the  fish  intended. 

Our  Lord  observes  (Luke  xi.  30)  that  '  Jonas  was  a  sign  to  the 
Ninevites ; '  and  it  is  remarkable  that  the  event  should  have  been 
so  widely  spread  and  attracted  so  much  notice,  that  among  the  few 
fragments  of  antiquity  remaining  to  us,  this  little  history  should  re- 
ceive from  them  larger  confirmation  than  some  others,  of  greater 
extent  and  magnitude.  The  heathen  have  preserved  the  fact,  but 
applied  it  to  Hercules. 


CHAPTER    V. 


REPTILES. 

THIS  numerous  and  diversified  class  of  being  is  distinguished  by 
two  appellations  in  the  sacred  writings,  (Gen.  i.  24,  25  ;  vii.  21 ;) 
the  one  being  expressive  of  its  motion ,  that  is,  crawling  ;  and  the 
other  of  its  abundant  production  or  increase.  Reptiles  of  all  sorts, 
except  those  furnished  with  wings,  were  unclean,  Lev,  xi.  41.  We 
shall  notice  them  under  three  divisions:  LIZARDS — SERPENTS — 
WORMS. 

SECTION     I. 
LIZARDS. 


THE    TORTOISE. 


DR.  SHAW  has  shown,  that  the  tzab  or  tjab  of  Lev.  xi.  29,  which 
we  call  the  tortoise,  is  a  lizard,  called  in  Arabic,  with  a  near  ap- 
proach to  the  Hebrew  name,  dhab  or  dab,  agreeing  nearly  in  shape, 
and  in  the  hard  pointed  annule  or  scales  of  the  tail,  with  the  candi- 
verbera  or  shake-tail,  as  it  is  represented  in  Gesner,  and  Johnson. 
'  The  dab,  or  Saharawan  lizard,  is  about  eighteen  inches  long,  and 
'three  or  four  inches  broad  across  the  back.  I  i.-  not  poisonous.  It 
lays  eggs  like  the  tortoise.  It  is  very  swift,  and,  if  hunted,  will  hide 
itself  in  the  earth,  which  it  penetrates  with  its  nose,  and  nothing 
will  extricate  it  but  digging  up  the  ground.' 
15* 


174  SCRIPTURE   NATURAL  HISTORY. 


THE    FERRET. 

DR.  GEDDES  understands  the  Hebrew  name,  rendered  ferret  in 
Lev.  xi.  30,  to  denote  the  newt,  and  Dr.  James  takes  it  for  the/rog-  ; 
but,  as  its  name  seems  to  be  taken  from  the  cry  it  makes,  the  prob- 
ability is,  that  the  species  of  lizard  called  in  Egypt,  the  GecJfco,  is 
the  animal  intended.  It  is  thus  described  by  Cepede : — 

*  Of  all  the  oviparous  quadrupeds  whose  history  we  are  publish- 
ing, this  is  the  first  that  contains  a  deadly  poison.  This  deadly  liz- 
ard, which  deserves  all  our  attention  by  his  dangerous  properties, 
has  some  resemblance  to  the  'chameleon  ;  his  head,  almost  trian- 
gular, is  large  in  comparison  to  his  body  ;  the  eyes  are  very  large  ; 
the  tongue  flat,  covered  with  small  scales,  and  the  end  rounded ; 
the  teeth  are  sharp,  and  so  strong  that,  according  to  Bontius,  they 
are  able  to  make  impressions  on  the  hardest  substances,  even  on 
steel.  It  is  almost  entirely  covered  with  little  warts,  more  or  less 
rising;  the  under  part  of  the  thighs  is  furnished  with  a  row  of  tu- 
bercles, raised  and  grooved.  The  feet  are  remarkable  for  oval 
scales,  more  or  less  hollowed  in  the  middle,  as  large  as  the  under 
surface  of  the  toes  themselves,  and  regularly  disposed  one  over 
another,  like  the  slates  on  a  roof.  The  tail  of  the  gecko,  is  com- 
monly rather  longer  than  the  body,  though  sometimes  shorter  ;  it 
is  round,  thin,  and  covered  with  circular  rings  or  bands,  formed  of 
several  rows  of  very  small  scales.  Its  color  is  a  clear  green,  spot- 


mlf 

rotten  trees,  as  well  as  humid  places;  it  is  sometimes  met  with  in 
houses,  where  it  occasions  great  alarm,  and  where  every  exertion  is 
used  to  destroy  it  speedily.  Bontius  states,  that  its  bite  is  so  venom- 
ous, that  if  the  part  bitten  be  not  cut  away  or  burned,  death  ensues 
in  a  few  hours.' 

Mr.  Charles  Taylor  thinks  there  is  an  allusion  to  this  reptile  in 
Deut.  xxxii.  33 :  'Their  wine  is  the  poison  of  dragons;  and  the 
cruel  venom  of  asps.'  The  allusion  here  is  to  the  venom  (Eng. 
transl.  wine,}  of  the  taninim  ;  and  this  venom  is  associated,  by  com- 
parison, with  the  cruel  venom  of  asps— pdhenim — serpents. 

The  following  extract  is  from  Bontius. 

*  The  Javanese  use  to  dip  their  arrows  in  the  blood  of  this  crea- 
ture ;  and  those  who  deal  in  poison  among  them  (an  art  much  es- 
teemed in  the  island  of  Java,  by  both  sexes)  hang  it  up  with  a 
string  tied  to  the  tail  on  tho  ceiling,  by  which  means  it  being  exas- 
perated to  the  highest  pitch,  sends  forth  a  yellow  liquor  out  of  its 
mouth,  which  they  gather  in  small  pots  underneath,  and  afterwards 
coagulate  into  a  body  in  the  sun.  This  they  continue  several 
months  together,  by  giving  daily  food  to  the  creature.  It  is  unques- 
tionably the  strongest  poison  in  the  world.' 


THE  CHAMELEON.  175 

THE     CHAMELEON. 


IN  the  English  Bible,  the  CHAMELEON  is  transformed  into  the 
rnole,  (Lev.  xi.  30,)  an  animal  that  has  little  pretension  to  be  associ- 
ated with  reptiles  of  the  lizard  species.  The  Hebrew  word,  from  a 
root  which  signifies  to  breathe,  is  peculiarly  appropriate  to  this  curi- 
ous animal,  which,  according  to  vulgar  opinion,  is  the  'creature 
nourished  by  the  wind  and  air.' 

The  chameleon  nearly  resembles  the  crocodile  in  form,  but  dif- 
fers widely  in  its  size  and  appetites.  Its  head  is  about  two  inches 
long,  and  from  thence  to  the  beginning  of  the  tail  four  and  a  half; 
the  tail  is  five  inches  long,  and  the  feet  two  and  a  half;  the  thick- 
ness of  the  body  varies  at  different  times,  for  the  animal  possesses 
the  power  of  blowing  itself  up  and  contracting  itself,  at  pleasure. 

During  his  visit  to  the  East,  Le  Bruyn  purchased  several  chame- 
leons, for  the  purpose  of  preserving  them  alive,  and  making  obser- 
vations on  their  nature  and  manners  ;  but  the  most  interesting  ac- 
count of  this  curious  animal  is  that  furnished  by  the  enterprising 
and  lamented  Belzoni,  which  we  transcribe. 

'There  are  three  species  of  chameleons,  whose  colors  are  pecu- 
liar to  themselves ;  for  instance,  the  commonest  sort  are  those  which 
are  generally  green,  that  is  to  say,  the  body  all  green,  and  when 
content,  beautifully  marked  on  each  side  regularly  on  the  green 
with  black  and  yellow,  not  in  a  confused  manner,  but  as  if  drawn. 
This  kind  is  in  great  plenty,  and  never  have  any  other  color  except 
a  light  green  when  they  sleep,  and  when  ill  a  very  pale  yellow. 
Out  of  near  forty  I  had  the  first  year  when  I  was  in  Nubia,  I  had 
but  one,  and  that  a  very  small  one,  of  the  second  sort,  which  had 
red  marks.  One  chameleon  lived  with  me  eight  months,  and  most 
of  that  time  I  had  it  fixed  to  the  button  of  my  coat:  it  used  to  rest 
on  my  shoulder,  or  on  my  head.  I  have  observed,  when  I  have 
kept  it  shut  up  in  a  room  for  some  time,  that,  on  bringing  it  out  in 
the  air,  it  would  begin  drawing  the  air  in ;  and  on  putting  it  on 
some  marjorum,  it  has  had  a  wonderful  effect  on  it  immediately : 
its  color  became  most  brilliant.  I  believe  it  will  puzzle  a  good  many 


176  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

to  say  what  cause  it  proceeds  from.  If  they  did  not  change  when 
shut  up  in  a  house,  but  only  on  taking  them  into  a  garden,  it  might 
be  supposed  the  change  of  the  colors  was  in  consequence  of  the 
smell  of  the  plants;  but  when  in  a  house,  if  it  is  watched,  it  will 
[be  seen  to]  change  every  ten  minutes :  some  moments  a  plain 
green,  at  others  all  its  beautiful  colors  will  come  out,  and  when  in 
a  passion  it  becomes  of  a  deep  black,  and  will  swell  itself  up  like  a 
balloon  ;  and,  from  being  one  of  the  most  beautiful  animals,  it  be- 
comes one  of  the  most  ugly.  It  is  true  they  are  extremely  fond  of 
the  fresh  air ;  and  on  taking  them  to  a  window  where  there  is  noth- 
ing to  be  seen,  it  is  easy  to  observe  the  pleasure  they  certainly  take 
in  it:  they  begin  to  gulp  down  the  air,  and  their  color  becomes 
brighter.  I  think  it  proceeds,  in  a  great  degree,  from  the  temper 
they  are  in :  a  little  thing  will  put  them  in  a  bad  humor.  If,  in 
crossing  a  takle,  for  instance,  you  stop  them,  and  attempt  to  turn 
them  another  road,  they  will  not  stir,  and  are  extremely  obstinate  : 
on  opening  the  mouth  at  them,  it  will  set  them  in  a  passion  :  they 
begin  to  arm  themselves,  by  swelling  and  turning  black,  and  will 
sometimes  hiss  a  little,  but  not  much.  The  third  1  brought  from 
Jerusalem,  was  the  most  singular  of  all  the  chameleons  I  ever  had  : 
its  temper,  if  it  can  be  so  called,  was  extremely  sagacious  and  cun- 
ning. This  one  wa.s  not  of  the  order  of  the  green  kind,  but  a  dis- 
agreeable drab,  and  it  never  once  varied  in  its  color  in  two  months. 
On  :ny  arrival  at  Cairo,  I  used  to  let  it  crawl  about  the  room,  on 
the  furniture.  Sometimes  it  would  get  down,  if  it  could,  and  hide 
itself  away  from  me,  but  in  a  place  where  it  could  see  me  ;  and 
sometimes,  on  my  leaving  the  room  arid  on  entering  it,  would  draw 
itself  so  thin  as  to  make  itself  nearly  on  a  level  with  \\hatever  it 
might  be  on,  so  that  I  might  not  see  it.  It  had  often  deceived  me 
so.  One  da)',  having  misst-d  it  for  some  time,  1  concluded  it  was 
hid  about  the  room  ;  after  looking  for  it  in  vain,  I  thought  it  had 
got  out  of  the  room  and  made  its  escape.  In  the  course  of  the 
evening,  after  the  candle  was  lighted,  I  went  to  a  basket  that  had 
got  a  handle  across  it :  I  saw  rny  chameleon,  but  its  color  entirely 
changed,  and  different  to  any  I  ever  had  seen  before :  the  whole 
body,  head  and  tail,  a  brown,  with  black  spots,  and  beautiful  deep 
orange  colored  spots  round  the  black.  I  certainly  was  much  grat- 
ified. On  being  disturbed,  its  colors  vanished,  unlike  the  others;  but 
after  this  I  used  to  observe  it  the  first  thing  in  the  morning,  when 
it  would  have  the  same  colors."  Their  chief  food  was  flies:  the  fly 
does  not  die  immediately  on  being  swallowed,  for,  on  taking  the 
chameleon  up  in  my  hands,  it  was  easy  to  feel  the  fly  buzzing, 
chiefly  on  account  of  the  air  they  draw  in  their  inside  :  they  swell 
much,  and  particularly  when  they  want  to  fling  themselves  off  a 
great  height,  by  filling  themselves  up  like  a  balloon.  On  falling, 
they  get  no  hurt,  except  on  the  mouth,  which  they  bruise  a  little, 
as  that  comes  first  to  the  ground.  Sometimes  they  will  not  drink 
for  three  or  four  days,  and  when  they  begin,  they  are  about  half  an 
hour  drinking.  I  have  held  a  glass  in  one  hand,  while  the  chame- 


THE  FROG.  177 

Icon  rested  its  two  fore  paws  on  the  edge  of  it,  the  two  hind  ones 
resting  on  my  other  hand.  It  stood  upright  while  drinking,  hold- 
ing its  head  up  like  a  fowl.  By  flinging  its  tongue  out  of  its  mouth, 
the  length  of  its  body,  and  instantaneously  catching  the  fly,  it  would 
go  back  like  a  spring.  They  will  drink  mutton  broth. 

*  When  in  Italy,  a  gentleman,  a  professor  of  natural  history,  had 
two  sent  him  from  the  coast  of  Barbary,  but  they  did  not  live  long. 
He  dissected  them,  and  his  idea  on  the  change  of  color  is,  that  he 
found  they  had  four  skins  extremely  fine,  which  occasioned  the 
different  colors.  It  may  be  so,  but  of  this  I  am  positively  certain, 
whatever  it  may  proceed  from,  they  have  their  different  colors  pe- 
culiar, distinct,  and  independent  of  each  other,  and  of  themselves.' 
He  adds,  in  another  place,  that  the  chameleons  are  very  inveterate 
towards  their  own  kind,  biting  off  each  others  tails  and  legs,  if  shut 
up  in  the  same  cage. 


THE  FROG. 

THE  frog  is  in  itself  a  very  harmless  animal,  but  to  most  people, 
who  use  it  not  as  an  article  of  food,  exceedingly  loathsome.  Its 
employment  by  the  Almighty  in  one  of  the  plagues  of  Egypt,  was 
characterized  by  the  most  striking  wisdom.  God,  with  equal  ease, 
says  Dr.  Adam  Clarke,  could  have  brought  crocodiles,  bears,  lions, 
or  tigers,  to  have  punished  these  people.  But,  had  he  used  any  of 
these  formidable  animals,  the  effect  would  have  appeared  so  com- 
mensurate to  the  cause,  that  the  hand  of  God  might  have  been  for- 
gotten in  the  punishment ;  and  the  people  would  have  been  exas- 
perated, without  being  humbled.  In  the  present  instance,  he  show- 
ed the  greatness  of  his  power,  by  making  an  animal,  devoid  of  eve- 
ry evil  quality,  the  means  of  a  terrible  affliction  to  his  enemies. 
How  easy  is  it,  both  to  the  justice  and  mercy  of  God,  to  destroy  or 
save  by  means  of  the  most  despicable  and  insignificant  of  instru- 
ments !  Though  he  is  the  Lord  of  Hosts,  he  has  no  need  of  power- 
ful armies,  the  ministry  of  angels,  or  the  thunderbolts  of  justice,  to 
punish  a  sinner,  or  a  sinful  nation ;  the/rog  or  the/y,  in  his  hands, 
is  a  sufficient  instrument  of  vengeance. 

To  the  reason  here  assigned  for  the  choice  of  so  insignificant  an 
animal,  we  may  add  another;  namely,  that  as  the  frog  waa  in 
Egypt  an  emblem  of  Osiris,  or  the  Sun,  the  first  object  of  idolatrous 
worship  to  the  nations  of  the  East,  its  employ  ment  on  such  an  oc- 
casion was  eminently  adapted  to  convince  them  of  the  absurdity  of 
their  superstitious  system. 

These  vengeful  reptiles,  says  Paxton,  were  produced  in  the 
streams  of  the  Nile,  and  in  the  lakes  which  were  supplied  from  its 


178  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

waters,  because  the  river  was  supposed,  by  that  deluded  people,  to 
possess  an  uncommon  degree  of  sanctity,  and  to  deserve  their  re- 
ligious veneration  ;  it  was  the  object  of  their  confidence,  it  was  ac- 
counted the  grand  source  of  their  enjoyments,  and  was  the  constant 
therne  of  their  praise  ;  it  was,  therefore,  just  to  pollute  those  waters 
with  an  innumerable  multitude  of  impure  animals,  to  which  the 
respect  and  confidence  which  was  due  only  to  the  true  God,  the 
Father  of  the  rain,  had  been  impiously  transferred.  Turned  at  first 
into  blood,  as  a  just  punishment  of  their  unfeeling  barbarity  to- 
wards the  male  children  of  Israel,  they  were  now  'a  second  'time 
polluted  and  disgraced,  to  the  utter  confusion  both  of  their  gods 
and  priests.' 

The  writer  from  whom  we  have  cited  these  observations,  has 
treated  the  entire  subject  in  so  admirable  a  manner,  that  we  shall 
enrich  our  pages  with  some  selections. 

This  loathsome  plague  extended  to  every  place,  and  to  every 
class  of  men.  The  frogs  came  up,  arid  covered  the  land  of  Egypt; 
they  entered  into  their  houses,  and  into  their  bed  chambers ;  they 
crawled  upon  their  persons,  upon  their  beds,  and  into  their  kitchen 
utensils.  The  whole  country — their  palaces,  their  temples,  their 
persons — all  was  polluted  and  hateful.  Nor  was  it  in  their  power 
to  wash  away  the  nauseous  filth  with  which  they  were  tainted,  for 
every  stream  and  every  lake  was  full  of  pollution.  To  a  people 
who  affected  a  most  scrupulous  purity  in  their  persons,  habitations, 
and  manner  of  living,  nothing,  almost,  can  be  conceived  more  in- 
sufferable than  this  plague.  The  frog  is,  compared  with  many  oth- 
er reptiles,  a  harmless  animal  ;  it  neither  injures  by  its  bite,  nor  by 
its  poison,  but  it  must  have  excited  on  this  occasion,  a  disgust, 
which  rendered  life  an  insupportable  burden.  The  eye  was  tor- 
tured with  beholding  the  march  of  their  impure  legions,  and  the 
ear  with  hearing  the  harsh  tones  of  their  voices.  The  Egyptians 
could  recline  upon  no  bed  where  they  were  not  compelled  to  ad- 
mit their  cold  and  filthy  embrace:  they  tasted  no  food  which  was 
not  infected  by  their  touch  ;  and  they  smelled  no  perfume  but  the 
fetid  smell  of  their  slime,  or  the  exhalations  emitted  from  their 
dead  carcasses. 

How  much  the  Egyptians  endured  from  this  visitation,  is  evident 
from  the  haste  with  which  Pharaoh  sent  for  Moses  and  Aaron,  and 
begged  the  assistance  of  their  prayers:  *  Entreat,  the  Lord  that  he 
may  take  away  the  frogs  from  me  and  from  my  people ;  and  I  will 
let  the  people  go,  that  they  may  do  sacrifice  unto  the  Lord.'  Re- 
duced to  great  extremity,  and  receiving  no  deliverance  from  the 
pretended  miracles  of  his  magicians,  he  had  recourse  to  that  God, 
concerning  whom  he  had  so  proudly  demanded,  '  Who  is  Jehovah, 
that  I  should  obey  his  voice  to  let  Israel  go  ?  '  Subdued  and  in- 
structed by  adversity,  he  implores  his  compassion,  and  acknowl- 
edges the  glory  of  his  name  ;  but,  as  the  event  proved,  not  with  a 
sincere  heart. 
In  answer  to  his  entreaties,  the  frogs  were  removed.  They  were 


THE  FROG.  179 

not,  however,  swept  away  like  the  locusts  which  succeeded  them, 
but  destroyed,  and  left  on  the  face  of  the  ground.  They  were  not 
annihilated,  nor  resolved  into  mud,  nor  marched  back  into  the  riv- 
er from  whence  they  had  come  ;  but  left  dead  upon  the  ground,  to 
prove  the  truth  of  the  miracle, — that  they  had  not  died  by  the  hands 
of  men,  but  by  the  power  of  God  ;  that  the  great  deliverence  was 
not  like  the  works  of  the  magicians,  a  lying  wonder,  but  a  real  in- 
terposition of  Almighty  power,  and  an  effect  of  Divine  goodness. 
The  Egyptians  were,  therefore,  reduced  to  the  necessity  of  collect- 
ing them  into  heaps,  which  had  the  effect  of  more  rapidly  disenga- 
ging the  offensive  effluvia,  and  thus,  for  a  time,  increasing  the 
wretchedness  of  the  country.  Their  destruction  was  probably  fol- 
lowed by  a  pestilence,  which  cut  off  many  of  the  people,  in  addi- 
tion to  those  that  died  in  consequence  of  the  grievous  vexations 
they  endured  from  their  loathsome  adversaries  ;  for,  in  one  of  the 
songs  of  Zion,  it  is  said,  '  He  sent  frogs,  which  destroyed  them' 
(Ps.  Ixxviii.  45) ;  laid  waste  their  lands,  and  infected  themselves  with 
pestilent  disorders. 

The  frog  was  chosen  by  the  Spirit  of  inspiration,  to  represent  in 
vision,  the  false  teachers,  and  other  agents  of  antichrist:  *  I  saw,' 
said  John,  'three  unclean  spirits,  like  frogs,  come  out  of  the  mouth 
of  the  dragon,  and  out  of  the  mouth  of  the  beast,  and  out  of  the 
mouth  of  the  false  prophet.  For  they  are  the  spirit  of  devils,  work- 
ing miracles,'  Rev.  xvi.  13,  14.  These  impure  and  mischievous 
emissaries  are  generated  and  reared  in  the  puddle  of  moral  deprav- 
ity ;  like  the  frog,  they  disturb  the  peace,  and  impair  the  happiness 
of  all  around  them.  Their  unceasing  loquacity  is  not  less  annoying 
than  the  perpetual  croaking  of  the  impure  animal  to  which  they 
are  compared.  Their  complaints  and  reproaches ;  their  accusations 
and  curses ;  their  pride  and  vanity ;  and  their  constant  and  eager 
exertions  to  stir  up  the  subjects,  kings,  and  princes  of  the  earth  to 
mutual  slaughter,  under  the  pretence  of  maintaining  the  cause  of 
religion, — are  still  more  painful  and  mischievous  than  the  obstrep- 
erous clamors,  the  mournful  complaints  and  mutual  reproaches, 
the  shameless  impudence  and  the  vain-glorious  inflations,  which 
the  frogs  are  accused  of  indulging,  in  their  native  marshes. 


SECTION  II. 
SERPENTS. 


THE  primitive  meaning  of  the  verb  from  which  the  Hebrew  name 
of  the  serpent  class  of  reptiles  is  derived,  signifies  to  view,  observe 
attentively,  &c.,  and  so  remarkable  are  they  for  this  quality,  that « a 
serpent's  eye' became  a  proverb  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans, 
who  applied  it  to  those  who  view  things  sharply  or  acutely.  An  in- 
genious writer,  speaking  of  the  supposed  fascination  in  the  rattle- 
snake's eye,  says,  *  It  is  perhaps,  more  universal  among  the  poison- 
ous serpents  than  is  supposed  ;  for  our  common  viper  has  it.' 

The  craft  and  subtilty  of  the  serpent  are  noticed  in  scripture,  as 
qualities  by  which  it  is  distinguisned  above  every  other  beast  of  the 
field,  Genesis  iii.  1. ;  Matthew  x.  16.  Of  its  prudence  and  cunning, 
many  instances  might  be  adduced,  as  recorded  by  naturalists ;  al- 
though it  is  reasonable  to  suppose,  that  in  common  with  other  parts 
of  the  creation,  it  has  materially  suffered  in  these  respects  from  the 
effects  of  the  curse. 

Notwithstanding  that  the  generality  of  mankind  regard  this  for- 
midable race  with  horror,  there  have  been  some  nations  who  held 
them  in  veneration  and  regard.  The  adoration  of  the  serpent  in 
ancient  Egypt  is  well  known;  as  is  that  of  the  dragon  in  Babylon. 
The  same  species  of  idolatry  still  prevails  throughout  India,  and  in 
many  parts  of  Africa  it  is  carried  to  the  most  degrading  excess. 

Calmet  has  enumerated  eleven  kinds  of  serpents,  which  were 
known  to  the  Hebrews; — 1.  APHEH,  the  viper.  2.  CHEFHIR,  a 
sort  of  aspick,  or  a  lion.  3.  ACSHUB,  the  aspick.  4.  PETHEN,  the 
aspick.  5.  TZEBOA,  a  speckled  serpent,  called  Hy<Rna±  by  the 
Greeks  and  Egyptians.  6.  TZIMMAON,  according  to  Jerom.  7. 
TZEPHO,  or  TZEPHONI,  a  basilisk ;  not  the  fabulous  cockatrice,  but 
a  serpent  like  others.  8.  KIPPOS,  the  ancontias  or  dart.  9.  SHEP- 
HIPHON,  the  cerastes.  10.  SH  AC  HAL,  the  black  serpent.  11.  SERAPH, 
zjlying  serpent. 

We  shall  notice  such  of  these  varieties  as  have  been  sufficiently 
identified. 


THE  VIPER. 

THE  viper  is  remarkable  for  its  quick  and  penetrating  poison,  and 
on  this  account  has  been  made,  from  the  remotest  antiquity,  an  em- 
blem of  what  is  hurtful  and  destructive.  Nay,  so  terrible  was  their 
nature,  that  they  were  commonly  thought  to  be  sent  as  execution- 


THE  VIPER.  181 

ers  of  Divine  vengeance  upon  mankind  j  for  enormous  crimes  which 
had  escaped  the  course  of  justice*  An  instance  of  such  an  opinion 
as  this,  we  have  in  the  history  of  Paul  (Acts  xxviii.),  whom  the 
people  of  Melita,  when  they  saw  the  viper  leap  upon  his  hand, 
concluded  to  be  a  murderer,  and  as  readily  made  a  god  of  him ;  when, 
instead  of  having  his  hand  inflamed,  or  fallen  down  dead,  he,  with* 
out  any  harm,  shook  the  reptile  into  the  fire;  it  being  obvious 
enough  to  imagine,  that  he  must  stand  in  a  near  relation,  at  least, 
to  the  gods  themselves,  who  could  thus  command  the  messengers 
of  their  vengeance,  and  counterwork  the  effects  of  such  powerful 
agents. 

The  prophet  Isaiah  mentions  the  viper  among  the  venomous  rep- 
tiles which,  in  extraordinary  numbers,  infested  the  land  of  Egypt, 
ch.  xxx.  6.    In  illustrating  the  mischievous  character  of  wicked 
men,  and  the  ruinous  nature  of  sin,  he  thus  alludes  to  this  danger- 
ous creature  again  :  '  They  hatch  cockatrice  eggs,  and  weave  the 
spider's  web :  he  that  eateth  of  their  eggs  dieth  ;  and  that  which 
is  crushed  breaketh  out  into  a  viper.'    The  cockatrice  here,  says 
Paxton,  undoubtedly  means  the  viper  5  for  the  egg  of  one  creature 
never  produces,  by  any  management,  one  of  a  different  species. 
When  the  egg  is  crushed,  the  young  viper  is  disengaged,  and  leaps 
out  prepared  for  mischief.    It  may  be  objected,  that  the  viper  is  not 
an  oviparous,  but  a  viviparous  animal ;  and  that,  consequently,  the 
prophet  must  refer  to  some  other  creature.    But  it  is  to  be  remem- 
bered, that  although  the  viper  brings  forth  its  young  alive,  they  are 
hatched  from  eggs  perfectly  formed  in  the  belly  of  the  mother. 
Hence,  Pliny  says  of  it,  *  The  viper  alone  of  all  terrestrial  animals,  pro- 
duces within  itself  an  egg  of  an  uniform  color,  and  soft  like  the  eggs 
or  roe  of  fishes.'    This  curious  natural  fact  reconciles  the  statement 
of  the  sacred  writer  with  the  truth  of  natural  history.     If  by  any 
means  the  egg  of  the  viper  be  separated  from  the  body,  the  phe- 
nomenon which  the  prophet  mentions,  may  certainly  take  place. 
Father  Labat  took  a  serpent  of  the  viper  kind,  and  ordered  it  to  be 
opened  in  his  presence.    In  its  womb  were  found  six  eggs,  each 
of  the  size  of  a  goose's  egg,  and  containing  from  thirteen  to  fifteen 
young  ones,  about  six  inches  long,  and  as  thick  as  a  goose  quill. 
They  were  no  sooner  liberated  from  their  prison-house,  than  they 
crept  about,  and  put  themselves  into  a  threatening  posture,  coiling 
themselves  up,  and  biting  the  stick  with  which  he  was  destroying 
them.     Those  contained  in  one  of  the  eggs  escaped  at  the  place 
where  the  female  was  killed,  by  the  bursting  of  the  egg,  and  their 
getting  among  the  bushes. 

In  Genesis  xlix.  17,  the  dying  patriarch  compares  the  Danites  to 
the  shephiphon,  probably  the  CERASTES;  a  serpent  of  the  viper  kind, 
of  a  light  brown  color,  which  lurks  in  the  sand,  and  in  the  tracks 
of  wheels  in  the  road,  and  unexpectedly  bites  the  legs  of  animals 
as  they  pass  along. 

To  the  depraved  hearts  and  malignant  dispositions  of  the  Scribes 
and  Pharisees,  both  our  Saviour  and  John  the  Baptist  allude,  in 
16 


182  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

these  words :  « O  generation  of  vipers,  who  hath  warned  you  to 
flee  from  the  wrath  to  come?'  (Matthew  iii.  7);  'Ye  serpents,  ye 
generation  of  vipers,  how  can  ye  escape  the  damnation  of  hell?' 
ch.  xxiii.  33. — Terribly  expressive  speeches !  A  serpentine  brood, 
from  a  serpentine  stock.  As  their  fathers  were,  so  were  they,  chil- 
dren of  the  wicked  one.  This  is  God's  estimate  of  a  SINNER,  wheth- 
er he  wade  in  wealth,  or  soar  in  fame.  The  Jews  were  the  seed 
of  the  serpent,  who  should  bruise  the  heel  of  the  woman's  seed, 
and  whose  head  should  be  bruised  by  him. 


THE    ADDER    AND    THE    ASP. 

THE  adder  was  known  to  the  ancient  Hebrews  under  various 
names. — It  is  the  opinion  of  some  interpreters,  that  the  word  Sha- 
chal)  which  in  some  parts  of  scripture  denotes  a  lion,  in  others 
means  an  adder,  or  some  kind  of  serpent.  Thus,  in  the  ninety-first 
Psalm,  they  render  it  the  basilisk,  *  Thou  shall  tread  upon  the  ad- 
der and  the  basilisk,  the  young  lion  and  the  dragon  thou  shalt  tram- 
ple under  foot,'  verse  13.  Indeed,  all  the  ancient  expositors  agree, 
that  some  species  of  serpent  is  meant ;  and  as  the  term  Shachal. 
when  applied  to  beasts,  denotes  a  black  lion  ;  so,  in  the  present  ap- 
plication, it  is  thought  to  mean  the  black  adder. 

The  Hebrew  Pethcn  is  variously  translated  in  our  version  ;  but 
interpreters  generally  consider  it  as  referring  to  the  asp.  Zophar 
alludes  to  it  more  than  once  in  his  description  of  a  wicked  man  : 
*  Yet  his  meat  in  his  bowels  is  turned,  it  is  the  gall  of  asps  within 
him. — He  shall  suck  the  poison  of  asps :  the  vipers'  tongue  shall 
slay  him,'  Job  xx.  14.  The  venom  of  asps  is  the  most  subtile  of 
all;  it  is  incurable,  and,  if  the  wounded  part  be  not  instantly  ampu- 
tated, it  speedily  terminates  the  existence  of  the  sufferer.  To  these 
circumstances  Moses  evidently  alludes,  in  his  character  of  the  hea- 
then :  '  Their  wine  is  the  poison  of  dragons,  and  the  cruel  venom 
of  asps,'  Deut.  xxxiii.  33.  See  also  Rom.  iii.  13.  To  tread  upon 
the  asp  is  attended  with  extreme  danger;  and  to  express  in  the 
strongest  manner  the  safety  which  the  godly  man  enjoys  under  the 
protection  of  his  heavenly  Father,  it  is  promised,  that  he  shall  trend 
with  impunity  upon  the  adder  and  the  dragon,  Psalm  xci.  13.  No 
person  of  his  own  accord  approaches  the  hole  of  these  deadly  rep- 
tiles ;  for  he  who  gives  them  the  smallest  disturbance,  is  in  extreme 
danger  of  paying  the  forfeit  of  his  rashness  with  his  life.  Hence, 
the  prophet  Isaiah,  predicting  the  conversion  of  the  Gentiles  to  the 
faith  of  Christ,  and  the  glorious  reign  of  peace  and  truth  in  these 
regions,  which,  prior  to  that  period,  were  full  of  horrid  cruelty,  de- 
clares, '  The  sucking  child  shall  play  on  the  hole  of  the  asp,  and 


THE  ADDER  AND  THE  ASP.  183 

the  weaned  child  shall  put  his  hand  on  the  cockatrice  den.  They 
shall  not  hurt  nor  destroy  in  all  my  holy  mountain  ;  for  the  earth 
shall  be  full  of  the  knowledge  of  the  Lord,  as  the  waters  cover  the 
sea,'  Isaiah  xi.  6—9.  In  the  glowing  descriptions  of  the  Golden 
Age,  with  which  the  Oriental  writers,  and  the  rapturous  bards  of 
Greece  and  Rome,  entertained  their  contemporaries,  the  wild  beasts 
grow  tame,  serpents  resign  their  poison,  and  noxious  herbs  their 
deleterious  qualities  •'  all  is  peace  and  harmony,  plenty  and  happi- 


The  soaring  genius  of  these  elegant  writers,  however,  could  reach 
no  higher  than  a  negative  felicity :  but  the  inspired  bard,  far  sur- 
passing them  in  the  beauty  and  elegance,  as  well  as  in  the  variety 
of  imagery,  with  which  he  clothes  the  same  ideas,  exhibits  a  glow- 
ing picture  of  positive  and  lasting  happiness.  The  wolf  and  the 
leopard  not  only  forbear  to  destroy  the  lamb  and  kid,  but  even  take 
their  abode  with  them,  and  lie  down  together.  The  calf,  and  the 
young  lion,  and  the  falling,  not  only  come  together,  but  also  repose 
under  the  same  covert,  and  are  led  quietly  in  the  same  band,  and 
that  by  a  little  child.  The  cow  and  the  she-bear,  not  only  feed  to- 
gether, but  even  lodge  their  young  ones,  for  whom  they  used  to  be 
most  jealously  fearful,  in  the  same  place.  All  the  serpent  kind  is 
so  perfectly  harmless,  that  the  sucking  infant,  or  the  newly- weaned 
child,  puts  his  hand  on  the  basilisk's  den,  and  plays  upon  the  hole 
of  the  aspic.  The  lion,  not  only  abstains  from  preying  on  the  weak- 
er animals,  but  also  becomes  tame  and  domestic,  and  feeds  on  straw 
like  the  ox.  These  are  all  beautiful  circumstances,  not  one  of  which 
has  been  touched  by  the  ancient  poets. 

The  wonderful  effect  which  music  produces  on  the  serpent  tribes, 
is  confirmed  by  the  testimony  of  several  respectable  moderns.  Ad- 
ders swell  at  the  sound  of  a  flute,  raising  themselves  up  on  the  one 
half  of  their  body,  turning  themselves  round,  beating  proper  time, 
and  following  the  instrument.  Their  head,  naturally  round  and 
long  like  an  eel,  becomes  broad  and  flat  like  a  fan.  The  tame  ser- 
pents, many  of  which  the  Orientals  keep  in  their  houses,  are  known 
to  leave  their  holes  in  hot  weather,  at  the  sound  of  a  musical  instru- 
ment, and  to  run  upon  the  performer.  Dr.  Shaw  had  an  opportur 
nity  of  seeing  a  number  of  serpents  keep  exact  time  with  the  Der- 
vishes in  their  circulatory  dances,  running  over  their  heads  and 
arms,  turning  when  they  turned,  and  stopping  when  they  stopped. 
The  rattle-snake  acknowledges  the  power  of  music  as  much  as  any 
of  his  family  ;  of  which  the  following  instance  is  a  decisive  proof. 
When  Chateaubriand  was  in  Canada,  a  snake  of  this  species  enter- 
ed their  encampment;  a  young  Canadian,  one  of  the  party,  who 
could  play  on  the  flute,  to  divert  his  associates,  advanced  against 
the  serpent  with  his  new  species  of  weapon.  « On  the  approach  of 
his  enemy,  the  haughty  reptile  curled  himself  into  a  spiral  line,flat^ 
toned  his  head,  inflated  his  cheeks,  contracted  his  lips,  displayed  his 
envenomed  fangs,  and  his  bloody  throat ;  his  double  tongue  glowed 
like  two  flames  of  fire ;  his  eyes  were  burning  coals ;  his  body,  swolu 


184  SCRIPTURE   NATURAL   HISTORY. 

with  rage,  rose  and  fell  like  the  bellows  of  a  forge  ;  his  dilated  skin 
assumed  a  dull  and  scaly  appearance  ;  and  his  tail,  which  sounded 
the  denunciation  of  death,  vibrated  with  so  great  rapidity!  as  to  re- 
semble a  light  vapor.  The  Canadian  now  began  to  play  upon  his 
flute ;  the  serpent  started  with  surprise,  and  drew  back  his  head. 
In  proportion  as  he  was  struck  with  the  magic  effect,  his  eyes  lost 
their  fierceness,  the  oscillations  of  his  tail  became  slower,  and  the 
sound  which  it  emitted  became  weaker,  and  gradually  died  away. 
Less  perpendicular  upon  their  spiral  line,  the  rings  of  the  fascinated 
serpent  were  by  degrees  expanded,  and  sunk  one  after  another  up- 
on the  ground,  in  concentric  circles.  The  shades  of  azure  green, 
white,  and  gold,  recovered  their  brilliancy  on  his  quivering  skin, 
and  slightly  turning  his  head,  he  remained  motionless,  in  the  atti- 
tude of  attention  and  pleasure.  At  this  moment,  the  Canadian  ad- 
vanced a  few  steps,  producing  with  his  flute  sweet  and  simple  notes. 
The  reptile,  inclining  his  variegated  neck,  opened  a  passage  with 
his  head  through  the  high  grass,  and  began  to  creep  after  the  mu- 
sician, stopping  when  he  stopped,  and  beginning  to  follow  him  again, 
as  soon  as  he  moved  forward.'  In  this  manner  he  was  led  out  of 
the  camp,  attended  by  a  great  number  of  spectators,  both  savages 
and  Europeans,  who  could  scarcely  believe  their  eyes,  when  they 
beheld  this  wonderful  effect  of  harmony.  The  assembly  unani- 
mously decreed,  that  the  serpent  which  had  so  highly  entertained 
them,  should  be  permitted  to  escape. 

But  on  some  serpent-?,  these  charms  seem  to  have  no  power ; 
and  it  appears  from  scripture,  that  the  adder  sometimes  takes  pre- 
cautions to  prevent  the  fascination  which  he  sees  preparing  for  him; 
for  the  deaf  adder  shutteth  her  ear,  and  will  not  hear  the  voice  of 
the  most  skilful  charmer,  Psalm  Iviii.  5,  6.  The  same  allusion  is 
involved  in  the  words  of  Solomon  :  '  Surely  the  serpent  will  bite 
without  enchantment,  and  a  babbler  is  no  better,'  Eccl.  x.  11.  The 
threatening  of  the  prophet  Jeremiah  proceeds  upon  the  same  fact ; 
'  I  will  send  serpents  (cockatrices)  among  you,  which  will  not  be 
charmed,  and  they  shall  bite  you,'  Jer.  viii.  17.  In  all  these  quota- 
tions, the  sacred  writers,  while  they  take  it  for  granted  that  many 
serpents  are  disarmed  by  charming,  plainly  admit  that  the  powers 
of  the  charmer  are  in  vain  exerted  upon  others.  To  account  for 
this  exception  it  has  been  alleged,  that  in  some  serpents  the  sense 
of  hearing  is  very  imperfect,  while  the  power  of  vision  is  exceed- 
ingly acute ;  but  the  most  intelligent  natural  historians  maintain, 
that  the  reverse  is  true.  The  sense  of  hearing  is  much  more  acute 
than  the  sense  of  vision.  Unable  to  resist  the  force  of  truth,  others 
maintain,  that  the  adder  is  deaf  not  by  nature,  but  by  design  ;  for 
the  Psalmist  says,  she  shutteth  her  ear,  and  will  not  hear  the  voice 
of  the  charmer.  But  the  plirase,  perhaps,  means  no  more  than  this 
that  some  adders  are  of  a  temper  so  stubborn,  that  the  various  arts 
of  the  charmer  make  no  impression  •  they  are  like  creatures  desti- 
tute of  hearing,  or  whose  ears  are  so  completely  obstructed,  that  no 
pounds  can  enter.  The  same  phrase  is  used  in  other  parts  of  Scrip-. 


THE  COCKATRICE.  185 

ture,  to  signify  a  hard  and  obdurate  heart :  '  Whoso  stoppeth  his 
ears  at  the  cry  of  the  poor,  he  also  shall  cry  himself,  but  shall  not 
be  heard,'  Prov.  xxi.  ]&  It  is  used  in  the  same  sense  of  the  righ- 
teous, by  the  prophet :  *  That  stoppeth  his  ears  from  the  hearing 
.cf  blood,  and  shutteth  his  eyes  from  seeing  evil,'  Isaiah  xxxiii.  15. 
He  remains  as  unmoved  by  the  cruel  and  sanguinary  counsels  of 
the  wicked,  as  if  he  had  stopped  his  ears. 


THE    COCKATRICE. 


THE  translators  of  the  English  Bible  have  variously  rendered  the 
Hebrew  words  tzepho  and  tzephoni,  by  adder  and  cockatrice ;  and 
we  are  by  no  means  certain  of  the  particular  kind  of  serpent  to 
which  the  original  term  is  applied.  In  Isaiah  xi.  8,  *  the  tzephoni,' 
says  Dr.  Harris,  *  is  evidently  an  advance  in  malignity  beyond  the 
petcn  which  precedes  it ;  and  in  ch.  xiv.  29,  it  must  mean  a  worse 
kind  of  serpent  than  the  nachash  ;  but  this  stiH  leaves  us  ignorant 
of  its  specific  character.  Mr.  Taylor,  who  has  taken  extraordinary 
pains  to  identify  it,  is  of  opinion  that  it  is  the  naja  or  Cobra  di 
capdlo  of  the  Portuguese,  which  we  find  thus  described  by  Gold- 
smith : — 

1  Of  all  others,  the  Cobra  di  capello,  or  hooded  serpent,  inflicts 
the  most  deadly  and  incurable  wounds.  Of  this  formidable  creature 
there  are  five  or  six  different  kinds ;  but  they  are  all  equally  dan- 
gerous, and  their  bite  followed  by  speedy  and  certain  death.  It  is 
from  three  to  eight  feet  long,  with  two  long  fangs  hanging  out  of 
the  upper  jaw.  It  has  a  broad  neck,  and  a  mark  of  dark  brown  on 
the  forehead,  which,  when  viewed  frontwise,  looks  like  a  pair  of 
16* 


186  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY, 

spectacles,  but  behind,  like  the  head  of  a  cat.  The  eyes  are  fierce 
and  full  of  fire  ;  the  head  is  small,  and  the  nose  flat,  though  cov- 
ered with  very  large  scales,  of  a  yellowish  ash  color;  the  skin  is 
white,  and  the  large  tumor  on  the  neck  is  flat,  and  covered  with 
oblong  smooth  scales.  The  bite  of  this  animal  is  said  to  be  incura- 
ble, the  patient  dying  in  about  an  hour  after  the  wound  ;  the  whole 
frame  being  dissolved  into  one  putrid  mass  of  corruption.  The 
effects  here  attributed  to  the  bite  of  this  creature  answer  very  well 
to  what  is  intimated  of  the  tzephoni  in  scripture.  Thus,  in  Isaiah 
xi.  9 :  *  They  [the  tzephoni  immediately  preceding]  shall  not  hurt 
inor  destroy  [corrupt]  in  all  my  holy  mountain.'  And  Proverbs 
xxiii.  32:  'At  the  last  it  biteth  like  a  serpent,  and  stingeth  [spreads, 
diffuses  its  poison  ;  So  the  LXX.  and  Vulgate,]  like  a  cockatrice.' 

We  must  not  omit  to  notice  the  very  powerful  argument  adduced 
jn  the  last  cited  passage  against  the  sin  of  immoderate  drinking. 
Like  the  poison  of  the  deadly  cockatrice,  it  paralyses  the  energies 
both  of  mind  and  body,  and  speedily  diffuses  corruption  through- 
out the  entire  frame.  '  Who  hath  woe  ?  who  hath  sorrow  ?  who 
hath  contentions  ?  who  hath  babblings  ?  who  hath  wounds  without 
cause?  who  hath  redness  of  eyes?  They  that  tarry  long  at  the 
wine  :  they  that  go  to  seek  mixed  wine.'  '  Wine  is  a  mocker,  strong 
drink  is  raging ;  and  whosoever  is  deceived  thereby  is  not  wise,' 
ch.  xxiii.  29,  30  ;  xx.  1, 

The  unyielding  cruelty  of  the  Chaldean  armies,  under  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, and  the  appointed  ministers  of  Jehovah's  vengeance  on  the 
Jewish  nation,  whose  iniquities  had  made  him  their  enemy,  is  ex- 
pressively alluded  to  in  the  following  passage  :  '  For,  behold,  I  will 
send  serpents,  cockatrices,  among  you,  which  shall  not  be  charmed, 
and  they  shall  bite  you,  saith  the  Lord,'  Jeremiah  viii.  17. 

In  Egypt,  and  other  Oriental  countries,  a  serpent  was  the  com- 
mon symbol  of  a  powerful  monarch  ;  it  was  embroidered  on  their 
robes,  and  blazoned  on  their  diadem,  to  signify  their  absolute  pow- 
er .and  invincible  might;  and  also,  that,  as  the  woun.d  inflicted  by 
the  basilisk  is  incurable,  so  the  fatal  effects  of  their  displeasure  were 
neither  to  be  avoided  nor  endured.  These,  says  JPax.ton,  are  the 
allusions  involved  in  the  address  of  the  prophet,  to  the  irreconcilable 
enemies  of  his  nation  :  'Rejoice  not  thou,  whole  Palestina,  because 
the  rod  of  Him  that  smote  xJiee  is  broken  ;  for  out  of  the  serpent's 
roots  shall  .come  forth  a  cockatrice,  and  his  fruit  shall  be  a  fiery 
flying  .serpent,'  Isaiah  xiv.  29.  U.zziah,  the  king  of  Judah,  had  sub- 
dued the  Philistines ;  but,  taking  advantage  of  the  weak  reign  of 
Ahab,  tuey  again  invaded  the  kingdom  of  Jqdea,  and  reduced  some 
cities  in  the  southern  part  of  the  country  under  their  dominion. 
On  the  death  of  Ahab,  Isaiah  delivers  this  prophecy,  threatening 
them  with  a  more  severe  chastisement  from  the  hand  of  liezekiah, 
the  grandson  of  Josiah,  by  whose  victorious  arms  they  had  been 
reduced  to  sue  for  peace,  which  he  accomplished,  when  'he  smote 
the  Philistines,  even  unto  Gaza;  and  the  borders  thereof,'  2  Kings 
xviii.  8.  Uzziah,  therefore,  must  be  meant  by  the  rod  that  smote 


THE  SERAPH,  OR  FIERY  SERPENT.  187 

them,  and  by  the  serpent  from  whom  should  spring  the  fiery  flying 
serpent,  that  is,  Hezekiah,  a  much  more  terrible  enemy  than  even 
Uzziah  had  been,  #ut  the  symbol  of  regal  power  which  the  Ori- 
ental kings  preferred  to  all  others,  was  the  basilisk. 

All  the  other  species  of  serpents  are  said  to  acknowledge  the 
superiority  of  the  basilisk,  by  flying  from  its  presence,  and  hiding 
themselves  irj  the  dust.  It  is  also  supposed  to  live  longer  than  any 
other  serpent :  the  ancient  heathens,  therefore,  pronounced  it  to  be 
immortal,  and  placed  it  in  the  number  of  their  deties  ;  and  because 
it  had  the  dangerous  power,  in  general  belief,  of  killing  with  its  pes- 
tiferous breath  the  strongest  animals,  it  seemed  to  them  invested 
with  the  power  of  life  and  death.  It  became,  therefore,  the  favor- 
ite symbol  of  kings,  and  was  employed  by  the  prophet  to  symbolize 
the  great  and  good  Hezekiah,  with  strict  propriety. 


THE  SERAPH,  OR  FIERY  SERPENT. 

THIS  species  of  serpent  receives  its  name,  seraph,  from  a  root 
which  signifies  to  burn,  either  from  its  vivid  fiery  color,  or  from  the 
heat  and  burning  pain  occasioned  by  its  bite.  In  Numb.  xxi.  6, 
&c.  we  read  that  these  venomous  creatures  were  employed  by  God 
to  chastise  the  unbelieving  and  rebellious  Israelites,  in  consequence 
of  which  many  of  them  died,  the  rest  being  saved  from  the  effects 
of  the  calamitous  visitation,  through  the  appointed  medium  of  the 
brazen  seraph,  which  Moses  was  enjoined  to  raise  upon  a  pole  in 
the  midst  of  the  camp,  and  which  was  a  striking  type  of  the  prom- 
ised Saviour,  John  iii.  14,  35. 

In  Isa.  xiv.  29,  and  ch.  xxx.  6,  the  same  word,  with  an  addition- 
al epithet  is  used,  and  is  translated  in  our  Bible,  'fiery  flying  ser- 
pents ;'  and  if  we  may  rely  upon  the  testimony  of  the  ancients,  a 
cloud  of  witnesses  may  be  produced,  who  speak  of  these  flying  or 
winged  serpents ;  although,  as  Parkhurst  remarks,  we  do  not  find 
that  any  of  them  affirm  they  actually  saw  such  alive  and  flying. 
Michaelis,  however,  was  so  lar  influenced  by  these  testimonies,  that 
in  his  83d  question  he  recommends  it  to  the  travellers  to  inquire 
after  the  existence  and  nature  of  flying  serpents.  In  conformity 
with  these  instructions,  Niebuhr  communicated  the  following  in- 
formation :  *  There  is  at  Basna,  a  sort  of  serpents  which  they  call 
Htie  sursurie  Heie  thidre.  They  commonly  keep  upon  the  date- 
trees  ;  and,  as  it  would  be  laborious  for  them  to  come  down  from  a 
very  high  tree  in  order  to  ascend  another,  they  twist  themselves  by 
the  tail  to  a  branch  of  the  former,  which  making  a  spring  by  the 
motion  they  give  it,  throw  themselves  to  the  branches  of  the  second. 
Hence  it  is  that  the  modern  Arabs  call  them  flying  serpents,  Heie 


188  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

thidre.  I  know  not  whether  the  ancient  Arabs,  of  whom  Mr.  Micha- 
e'lis  speaks  in  his  83d  question,  saw  any  other  flying  serpents.' 
Niebuhr  refers  also  to  Lord  Anson's  report  of  flying  serpentsMn  th» 
island  of  Quibo.  The  passage  is  as  follows :  *  The  Spaniards,  too, 
informed  us,  that  there  was  often  found  in  the  woods,  a  most  mis- 
chievous serpent,  called  the  flying  snake,  which,  they  said,  darted 
itself  from  the  boughs  of  trees  on  either  man  or  beast  that  came 
within  its  reach,  and  whose  sting  they  believed  to  be  inevitable 
death.  But  professor  Paxton  has  proposed  an  interpretation  of  the 
original  phrase,  which  the  text  will  equally  bear.  The  verb  ouph, 
he  remarks,  sometimes  means  to  sparkle,  to  emit  coruscations  of 
light.  In?  this  sense  the  noun  thopah,  frequently  occurs  in  the  sa- 
cred volume.  Thus,  Zophar  (Job  xi.  17)  says :  *  The  coruscation 
(thopah)  shall  be  as  the  morning.'  The  word  in  the  texts  undjer 
'consideration,  may  therefore  refer  to  "[the  ruddy  color  of  that  ser- 
pent, and  express  the  sparkling  of  the  blazing  sunbeam  upon  its 
scales,  which  are  extremely  brilliant.  It  seems  therefore  probable, 
that  the  seravh  was  not  the  hydrus  or  chersydrus,  as  Bochart  sup- 
poses, but  o£the  prsester  or  dipsas  kind. 


THE  DRAGON.  189 

THE    DRAGON. 


THIS  word,  which  frequently  occurs  in  the  English  Bible,  gen- 
erally answers  to  the  Hebrew  Tan,  and  Tannin,  though  these  words 
are  sometimes  rendered  serpents,  sea-monsters,  and  whales.  The 
Rev.  James  Hurdis,  in  '  A  Dissertation  upon  the  true  meaning  of 
the  word  tanninimj  contends,  that  in  its  various  it  invariably  signi- 
fies the  crocodile  ;  an  opinion  which  cannot  be  supported  by  authen- 
tic facts,  or  a  legitimate  mode  of  reasoning.  The  learned  editor  of 
Calmet,  who  argues  at  great  length  for  restraining  the  word  to  am- 
phibious animals,  is  of  opinion  that  it  includes  the  class  of  lizards, 
from  the  water-newt  to  the  crocodile,  and  also  the  seal,  the  manati, 
the  morse,  &c.  His  arguments  are  certainly  ingenious  and  deserv- 
ing of  attention  ;  but  they  have  failed  to  convince  us  of  the  legiti- 
macy of  his  deduction?.  The  subject  is  involved  in  much  obscuri- 
ty, from  the  apparent  latitude  with  which  the  word  is  employed  by 
the  sacred  writers.  In  Exod.  vii.  9,  et  seq.,  Deut.  xxxii.  33,  and  Jer. 
li.  34,  it  seems  to  denote  a  large  serpent,  or  the  dragon,  properly  so 
called;  in  Gen.  i.  2J,  Job  vii.  12,  and  Ezek.  xxix.  3,  a  crocodile,  or 
any  large  sea  animal ;  and  in  Lam.  iv,  3,  and  Job  xxx.  29,  some 
kind  of  wild  beast,  probably  the  jackal  or  wolfj  as  the  Arabic  teenan 
denotes.  It  is  to  the  dragon,  properly  so  called,  that  we  shall  now 
direct  our  attention. 

Three  kinds  of  dragons  were  formerly  distinguished  in  India. 
1.  Those  of  the  hills  and  mountains.  2.  Those  of  the  valleys  and 
caves.  3.  Those  of  the  fens  and  marshes.  The  first  is  the  largest, 
and  covered  with  scales  as  resplendent  as  burnished  gold.  They 


190  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

have  a  kind  of  beard  hanging  from  their  lower  jaw  ;  their  aspect  is 
frightful,  their  cry  loud  and  shrill,  their  crest  bright  yellow,  and 
they  have  a  protuberance  on  their  heads,  of  the  color  of  a  burning 
coal.  2.  Those  of  the  flat  country  are  of  a  silver  color,  and  fre- 
quent rivers,  to  which  the  former  never  come.  3.  Those  of  the 
marshes  are  black,  glow,  and  have  no  crest.  Their  bite  is  not  ven- 
omous, though  the  creatures  are  dreadful. 

The  following  description  of  the  Boa  is  chiefly  abstracted  and 
translated  from  DE  LA  CEPEDE,  by  Mr.  Taylor,  who  considers  it  to 
be  the  proper  dragon. 

The  BOA  is  among  serpents,  what  the  lion  or  the  elephant  is 
among  quadrupeds.  He  usually  reaches  twenty  feet  in  length ;  and 
to  this  species  we  must  refer  those  described  by  travellers,  as 
lengthened  to  forty  or  fifty  feet,  as  related  by  Owen.  Kircher  men- 
tions a  serpent  forty  palms  in  length  ;  and  such  a  serpent  is  referred^ 
to  by  Job  Ludolph,  as  extant  in  Ethiopia.  Jerom,  in  his  life  of 
Hilarion,  denominates  such  a  serpent,  draco,  a  dragon  ;  saying,  that 
they  were  called  boas,  because  they  could  swallow  (bovis)  beeves, 
and  waste  whole  provinces.  Bosnian  says,  ( entire  men  have  fre- 
quently been  found  in  the  gullets  of  serpents,  on  the  gold  coast ; 
but,  the  longest  serpent  I  have  read  of,  is  that  mentioned  by  Livy, 
and  by  Pliny,  which  opposed  the  Roman  army  under  Regulus,  at 
the  river  Bagrada,  in  Africa.  It  devoured  several  of  the  soldiers ; 
an4  so  hard  were  its  scales,  that  they  resisted  darts  and  spears :  at 
length  it  was,  as  it  were,  besieged,  and  the  military  engines  were 
employed  against  it,  as  against  a  fortified  city.  It  was  a  hundred 
and  twenty  feet  in  length.' 

At  Batavia  a  serpent  was  taken  which  had  swallowed  an  entire 
stag  of  a  large  size ;  and  one  taken  at  Bunda  had,  in  like  manner, 
swallowed  a  negro  woman.  Leguat,  in  his  travels,  says,  there  are 
serpents  fifty  feet  long  in  the  island  of  Java.  At  Batavia  they  still 
keep  the  skin  of  one,  which,  though  but  twenty  feet  in  length,  is 
said  to  have  swallowed  a  young  maid  whole.  From  this  account 
of  the  Boa,  Mr.  Taylor  thinks  it  probable  that  John  had  it  in  his 
mind,  when  he  describes  a  persecuting  power  under  the  symbol  of 
a  great  red  dragon.  The  dragon  of  antiquity  was  a  serpent  of  pro- 
digious size,  and  its  most  conspicuous  color  was  red  ;  and  the  apo- 
calyptic dragon  strikes  vehemently  with  his  tail;  in  all  which  par- 
ticulars it  perfectly  agrees  with  the  boa. 

'  And  there  appeared  another  wonder  in  heaven ;  and  behold  a 
great  red  dragon,  having  seven  heads  and  ten  horns,  and  seven 
crowns  upon  his  heads.  And  his  tail  drew  the  third  part  of  the 
stars  of  heaven,  and  did  cast  them  to  the  earth,'  Rev.  xii.  3,  4 ;  15 
— 17.  The,  number  of  heads  here  given  to  this  creature,  are  cer- 
tainly allegorical ;  as  are  also  the  ten  horns,  and  the  ten  crowns 
•which  are  attached  to  them.  But  in  all  these  instances,  says  Pax- 
ton,  it  is  presumed  that  the  inspired  writer  alludes  either  to  histori- 
cal facts  ;or  natural  appearances.  It  is  well  known,  that  there  is  a 
species  of  snake,  called  amphisbena3,  or  double-headed,  although 


THE  DRAGON.  191 

one  of  them  is  at  the  tail  of  the  animal,  and  is  only  apparent.  A 
kind  of  serpent,  indeed,  is  so  often  found  with  two  heads  growing 
from  one  nedr,  that  some  have  fancied  it  might  form  a  species ;  but 
we  have,  as  yet,  no  sufficient  evidence  to  warrant  such  a  conclu- 
sion. Admitting,  however,  that  a  serpent  with  two  heads  is  an  un- 
natural production,  for  this  very  reason  it  might  be  chosen  by  the 
Spirit  of  God,  to  be  a  prototype  of  the  apocalyptical  monster.  The 
horns  seem  to  refer  to  the  cerastes  or  horned  snake,  the  boa  or 
proper  dragon  having  no  horn.  But  this  enormous  creature  has  a 
crest  of  bright  yellow,  and  a  protuberance  on  his  head,  in  color  like 
a  burning  coal,  which  naturally  enough  suggests  the  idea  of  a 
crown.  The  remaining  particulars  refer  to  facts  in* the  history  of 
the  boa  or  other  serpents.  The  great  red  dragon  stood  before  the 
woman,  ready  to  devour  her  child.  When  the  boa  meets  his  ad- 
versary, he  stands  upright  on  his  tail,  and  attacks  with  dreadful 
rage,  both  man  and  beast.  The  tail  of  the  great  red  dragon,  '  drew 
the  third  part  of  the  stars  of  heaven,  and  did  cast  them  to  the  earth.' 
The  boa  frequently  kills  his  victim  with  a  stroke  of  his  tail. 

Stedman  mentions  an  adventure  in  his  *  Expedition  to  Surinam,' 
which  furnishes  a  very  clear  and  striking  illustration  of  this  part  of 
our  subject.     It  relates  to  one  of  these  large  serpents,  which,  though 
it  certainly  differs  from  the  red  dragon  of  Asia  and  Africa,  com- 
bines several  particulars  connected  with  our  purpose.    He  had  not 
gone  from  his  boat  above  twenty  yards,  through  mud  arid  water, 
when  he  discovered  a  snake  rolled  up  under  the  fallen  leaves  and 
rubbish  of  the  trees,  and  so  well  covered,  thaj  it  was  some  time  be- 
fore he  distinctly  perceived  the  head  of  the  monster,  distant  from 
him  not  above  sixteen  feet,  moving  its  forked  tongue,  while  its  eyes, 
from  their  uncommon  brightness,  appeared  to  emit  sparks  of  fire. 
He  now  fired;  but  missing  the  head,  the  ball  went  through  the 
body,  when  the  animal  struck  round,  with  such  astonishing  force, 
as  to  cut  away  all  the  underwood  around  him,  with  the  facility  of 
a  scythe  mowing  grass,  and  by  flouncing  his  tail,  caused  the  mud 
and  dirt  to  fly  over  his  head  to  a  considerable  distance.    He  return- 
ed in  a  short  time  to  the  attack,  and  found  the  snake  a  little  remov- 
ed from  his  former  station,  but  very  quiet,  with  his  head  as  before, 
lying  out  among  the  fallen  leaves,  rotten  boughs,  and  old  moss.   He 
fired  at  him  immediately  ;  and  now,  being  but  slightly  wounded, 
he  sent  out  such  a  cloud  of  dust  and  dirt,  as  our  author  declares 
he  never  saw  but  in  a  whirlwind.     At  {he  third  firo  the  snake  was 
shot  through  the  head.    All  the  negroes  present  declared  it  to  be 
bat  a  young  one,  about  half  grown,  although,  on  measuring,  he 
found  it  twenty-two  feet  and  some  inches,  and  its  thickness,  about 
that  of  his  black  boy,  who  might  be  about  twelve  years  old. 

These  circumstances  account  for  the  sweeping  destruction  which 
the  tail  of  the  apocalyptic  dragon  effected  among  the  stars  of  heav- 
en. The  allegorical  incident  has  its  foundation  in  the  nature  and 
structure  of  the  literal  dragon.  The  only  circumstance  which  still 
requires  explanation,  is  the  flood  of  water  ejected  by  the  dragon,  after 


192  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

he  had  failed  in  accomplishing  the  destruction  of  the  woman  and 
her  seed.  The  venom  of  poisonous  serpents  is  commonly  ejected 
by  a  perforation  in  the  fangs,  or  cheek  teeth,  in  the  act  of  biting. 
We  learn,  however,  from  several  facts  mentioned  by  Mr.  Taylor, 
that  serpents  have  the  power  of  throwing  out  of  their  mouth  a 
quantity  of  fluid  of  an  injurious  nature.  The  quantity  cast  out  by 
the  great  red  dragons  is  in  proportion  to  his  immense  size,  and  is 
called  a  flood  or  stream,  which  the  earth,  helping  the  woman,  open- 
ed her  mouth  to  receive.  Gregory,  the  friend  of  Ludoiph,  says,  in 
his  History  of  Ethiopia,  '  We  have  in  our  province,  a  sort  of  ser- 
pent as  long  as  the  arm.  He  is  of  a  glowing  red  color,  but  some- 
what brownish.  This  animal  has  an  offensive  breath,  and  ejects  a 
poison  so  venomous  and  stinking,  that  a  man  or  beast  within  the 
reach  of  it,  is  sure  to  perish  quickly  by  it,  unless  immediate  assist- 
ance be  given.  At  Mouree,  a  great  snake,  being  half  under  a  heap 
of  stones  and  half  out,  a  man  cut  it  in  two,  at  the  part  which  was 
out  from  among  the  stones ;  and  as  soon  as  the  heap  was  removed, 
the  reptile,  turning,  made  up  to  the  man,  and  spit  such  venom  into 
his  face,  as  quite  blinded  him,  and  so  he  continued  some  days,  but 
at  last  recovered  his  sight. 

The  prophet  Jeremiah  alludes  to  the  hideous  voracity  of  the  boa, 
where  he  predicts  the  destruction  of  Babylon,  the  cruel  oppressor 
of  his  people.  'Nebuchadnezzar,  the  king  of  Babylon, hath  swal- 
lowed me  up  ;  he  has  filled  his  belly  with  my  delicacies,'  ch.  li.  34. 
The  same  writer,  in  his  description  of  a  severe  famine,  represents 
the  wild  ass,  upon  the  summit  of  a  rock,  'snuffing  up  the  wind 
like  dragons,'  ch.  xiv.  6.  Nor  do  these  terrible  reptiles  content 
themselves  with  catching  the  passing  breeze  ;  they  are  said  to  suck 
from  the  air  the  birds  that  fly  above  them,  by  the  strength  of  their 
breathing.  When  the  ancient  Hebrews  observed  the  dragons  erect, 
and  with  expanded  jaws  fetching  a  deep  inspiration,  they  interpret- 
ed the  circumstance  as  if  with  their  eyes  lifted  up  to  heaven  they 
complained  to  their  Maker  of  their  miserable  condition  ;  that,  hated 
by  all  creatures,  and  confined  to  the  burning  and  sterile  deserts,  they 
dragged  out  a  tedious  and  miserable  existence. 

'ihe  silent  and  barren  wilderness  is  the  chosen  haunt  of  the 
dragon.  It  is  on  this  account  the  prophets  of  Jehovah,  in  predict- 
ing the  fall  of  populous  cities,  so  frequently  declare,  '  They  shall 
become  the  habitation  of  dragons  ; '  by  which  they  mean  to  threat- 
en thein  with  complete  and  perpetual  desolation.  The  same  allu- 
sion is  involved  in  the  complaint  of  the  Psalmist:  '  Thou  hast  bro- 
ken us  in  the  place  of  dragons : '  or,  as  Aquila  not  improperly  ren- 
ders it,  in  the  place  which  cannot  be  inhabited. 

The  word  dragon  is  sometimes  used  in  scripture  to  designate  the 
devil  (Rev.  xii.freq.),  probably  on  account  of  his  great  power,  and 
vind  ictive  cruelty  ;  though  not  without  reference  to  the  circum- 
stances attending  the  original  defection  of  mankind. 


THE  HORSELEACH.  193 


THE    HORSELEACH. 

THE  import  of  the  Hebrew  word  rendered  horseleach  in  the 
LXX.  the  Vulgate,  and  the  Targums,  as  well  as  in  the  English 
and  other  modern  versions  of  scripture,  is  by  no  means  well  ascer- 
tained. 'The  horseleach,'  says  Solomon,  'hath  two  daughters,  cry- 
ing, give,  give,'  Prov.  xxx.  16.  Bochart  thinks  the  translators  have 
mistaken  the  import  of  one  word  for  that  of  another  very  similar, 
and  that  it  should  be  translated  Destiny,  or  the  necessity  of  dying ; 
to  which  the  Rabbins  gave  two  daughters,  Eden  or  Paradise,  and 
Hades  or  Hell ;  the  first  of  which  invites  the  good,  the  second  calls 
for  the  wicked.  And  this  interpretation  is  thought  to  be  strength- 
ened by  ch.  xxvii.  20;  'Hell  and  Destruction  [Hades  and  the 
Grave]  are  never  satisfied.'  Paxton,  on  the  other  hand,  contends 
that  the  common  interpretation  is  in  every  respect  entitled  to  the 
preference.  Solomon,  having  in  the  preceding  verses  mentioned 
those  that  devoured  the  property  of  the  poor,  as  the  worst  of  all  the 
generations  he  had  specified,  proceeds  in  the  fifteenth  verse,  to  state 
and  illustrate  the  insatiable  cupidity  with  which  they  prosecuted 
their  schemes  of  rapine  and  plunder.  As  the  horseleach  hath  two 
daughters,  cruelty  and  thirst  of  blood,  which  cannot  be  satisfied  ; 
so,  the  oppressor  of  the  poor  has  two  dispositions,  cruelty  and  ava- 
rice, which  never  say  they  have  enough,  but  continually  demand 
additional  gratifications. 


THE    SNAIL. 


THIS  creature  appears  in  two  passages  of  the  English  Bible,  but 
improperly  in  Lev.  xi.  30,  where  the  Hebrew  doubtless  means  a 
kind  of  lizard.  The  wise  Author  of  nature  having  denied  feet  and 
claws  to  enable  snails  to  creep  and  climb,  has  made  them  amends, 
in  a  way  more  commodious  for  their  state  of  life,  by  the  broad  skin 
along  each  side  of  their  belly,  and  the  undulating  motion  observa- 
ble there.  By  the  latter  they  creep ;  by  the  former,  assisted  by  the 
glutinous  slime  emitted  from  the  body," they  adhere  firmly  and  se- 
curely to  all  kinds  of  superfices,  partly  by  the  tenacity  of  their 


194  SCRIPTURE   NATURAL  HISTORY. 

slime,  and  partly  by  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere.  Thus^says 
Paxton,  the  snail  wastes  herself  by  her  own  morion,  every  undula- 
tion leaving  some  of  her  moisture  behind ;  and  in  the  same  manner 
the  actions  of  wicked  men  prove  their  destruction.  They  may, 
like  the  snail,  carry  their  defence  along  with  them,  and  retire  into 
it  on  every  appearance  of  danger :  they  may  confidently  trust  in 
their  own  resources,  and  banish  far  away  the  fear  of  evil ;  but  the 
principles  of  ruin  are  at  work  within  them,  and  although  the  pro- 
gress may  be  slow,  the  result  is  certain.  The  holy  Psalmist,  guid- 
ed by  the  Spirit  of  inspiration,  prayed:  *  As  a  snail  which  melteth, 
let  every  one  of  them  pass  away,'  (Ps.  Iviii.  8) ;  and  Jehovah  an- 
swered, 'The  wicked  shall  be  turned  into  hell,  and  all  the  nations 
that  forget  God.' 


SECTION  III. 
WORMS. 


ANIMALS  of  the  worm  kind  are  placed,  by  scientific  writers,  as 
the  first  in  the  class  of  Zoophytes  ;  but  as,  like  serpents,  they  have 
a  creeping  motion,  so  both,  in  general,  go  under  the  common  ap- 
pellation of  reptiles.  But  though  worms,  as  well  as  serpents,  are 
mostly  without  feet,  and  have  been  doomed  to  creep  along  the 
earth  on  their  bellies,  yet  their  motions  are  very  different.  The 
serpent  having  a  back-bone,  which  it  is  incapable  of  contracting, 
bends  its  body  into  the  form  of  a  bow,  and  then  shoots  forward 
from  the  tail ;  but  the  worm  has  a  power  of  lengthening  or  con- 
tracting itself  at  will.  There  is  a  spiral  muscle,  that  runs  round  its 
whole  body,  from  the  head  to  the  tail,  somewhat  resembling  a  wire 
wound  round  a  walking-cane,  which,  when  slipped  off,  and  one 
end  extended  and  held  fast,  will  bring  the  other  nearer  to  it.  In 
this  manner,  the  earth-worm,  having  shot  out,  or  extended  its  body, 
takes  hold  by  the  slime  of  its  fore-part,  and  so  contracts  and  brings 
forward  the  hinder  part,  and  in  this  manner  moves  onward.  It 
is  from  the  manner  of  its  motion,  as  here  described^  that  a  worm  is 
called  in  Hebrew,  the  projector. 

There  is  no  phenomenon  in  all  natural  history  more  astonishing 
than  what  is  sometimes  seen  in  creatures  of  the  worm  kind.  Some 
of  them  will  live  without  their  limbs,  and  often  are  seen  to  repro- 
duce them  ;  some  continue  to  exist  though  cut  in  two,  their  nobler 
parts  preserving  life,  while  the  others  perish  that  were  cut  away. 
But  the  earth-worm,  and  all  the  Zoophyte  tribe,  continue  to  live  in 
separate  parts ;  and  one  animal,  by  means  of  cutting,  is  divided  into 
two  distinct  existences,  sometimes  into  a  thousand !  Spalanzani 
tried  several  experiments  upon  the  earth-worm,  many  of  which 
succeeded  according  to  his  expectation,  although  all  did  not  retain 
the  vivacious  principle  with  the  same  degree  of  obstinacy.  Some, 
when  cut  in  two,  were  entirely  destroyed  ;  others  survived  only  in 
the*nobler  part ;  and  while  the  head  was  living,  the  tail  entirely 
perished,  and  a  new  one  was  seen  to  burgeon  from  the  extremity. 
But  what  was  most  surprising  of  all — in  some,  both  extremities  sur- 
vived the  operation :  the  head  produced  a  tail  with  the  anus,  the 
intestines,  the  annular  muscle,  and  the  prickly  beards ;  the  tail  part, 
on  the  other  hand,  was  seen  to  shoot  forth  the  nobler  organs,  and, 
in  less  than  the  space  of  three  months,  a  head,  a  heart,  and  all  the 
apparatus  and  instruments  of  generation.  This  part,  as  may  easily 
be  supposed.,  was  produced  much  more  slowly  than  the  former;  a 


J96  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 


new  head  taking  above  three  or  four  months  for  its  completion,  a 
new  tail  being  shot  forth  in  less  than  as  many  weeks.  Thus,  two 
animals,  by  dissection,  were  made  out  of  one  ;  each  with  their  sep- 
arate appetites :  each  endued  with  life  and  motion  ;  and  seemingly 
as  perfect  as  that  single  animal  from  whence  they  derived  their  ori- 
gin !  This  singular  fact  exhibits  a  striking  proof  of  the  compara- 
tive imperfection  of  their  organs,  and  seems  to  justify  the  classify- 
ing them  in  the  order  of  Zoophytes,  a  name  which,  as  above  re- 
marked, implies  vegetable  nature  endued  with  animal  life. 

For  the  purpose  of  exhibiting,  in  a  striking  light,  the  weakness 
and  abjection  of  man,  the  sacred  writers  sometimes  compare  him 
to  this  mean  reptile,  Job  xxv.  1 ;  Psalm  xxii.  6. 

In  Mark  ix.  44,  we  read  of  the  worm  that  dieth  not,  and  the  fire 
that  is  unquenchable ;  a  passage  which  is  evidently  taken  from 
Isaiah  Ixvi.  24,  where  the  subject  is  the  punishment  to  be  inflicted 
on  the  incorrigible  in  this  life,  in  order  to  describe,  as  is  usual  with 
the  Jewish  writers,  the  judgment  of  another  world.  Losing  sight 
of  this  circumstance,  some  writers  who  have  argued  against  the 
eternity  of  future  punishments,  have  improperly  and  unwarranta- 
bly restricted  the  sense  of  the  passage.  The  place  of  the  damned 
is  compared  to  a  Afield  where  carcasses  are  thrown  out,  and  are 
gnawed  by  worms,  or  burnt  with  fire.  Such  was  their  Gehenna, 
or  the  Valley  of  Hinnom,  near  Jerusalem  ;  odious  by  the  former 
sacrifices  to  Moloch,  and  afterwards  desecrated  by  Josiah,  by  being 
made  a  common  burying  place.  Le  Clerc  and  some  others  think 
there  is  an  allusion  to  the  two  sorts  of  funeral  rites,  burning  and 
burying.  Hence,  says  bishop  Lowth,  the  worms  which  preyed  on 
the  carcasses,  and  the  fire  which  consumed  the  victims. 


CHAPTER  VI. 


INSECTS. 

OP  all  the  productions  of  nature,  insects  are  by  far  the  most  nu- 
merous ;  and  as  they  are  endowed  with  the  various  powers  of  creep- 
ing, flying,  and  swimming,  there  is  scarcely  any  place,  however  re- 
mote and  secure,  in  which  they  are  not  to  be  found.  They  are 
placed  by  naturalists  in  the  lowest  rank  of  animated  nature ;  and 
their  conformation,  their  instincts,  and  their  amazing  numbers,  are 
said  to  show  the  propriety  of  such  a  classification. 

But  in  this  numerous  class  of  animated  beings,  where  shall  we 
find  a  single  instance  in  which  imperfection  is  made  to  appear  ?  In 
all  the  prodigious  variety  that  exists  between  the  scorpion  and  the 
mite,  we  certainly  behold  in  the  structure  of  insects  abundant  evi- 
dence of  the  most  exquisite  skill ;  and  if  by  means  of  the  microscope 
we  extend  our  researches  downwards  through  that  minute  order 
of  beings,  till  we  arrive  at  those  invisible  animalcules  which  are 
computed  to  be  twenty-seven  millions  of  times  smaller  than  a  mite 
the  same  evidences  of  wisdom  and  design  present  themselves  in 
every  gradation,  and  all  ideas  of  imperfection  cease.* 

It  is  not  at  all  surprising,  then,  that  such  an  accurate  searcher  in- 
to nature's  works  as  the  excellent  Mr.  Boyle,  should  observe  *  that 
his  wonder  dwelt  not  so  much  on  nature's  clocks  as  on  her  watch- 
es.' In  several  kinds  of  insects,  invisible  before  to  mortal  eye,  it  is 
not  only  easy  to  discover,  by  means  of  a  good  magnifier,  the  exter- 
nal appearance  of  their  mouths,  their  horns,  their  trunks,  and  other 
members,  but  the  very  motion  of  their  heart  and  lungs !  Now,  as 
these  little  animals  are  discovered  to  be  organized  bodies,  how  fine 
and  subtle  must  be  the  several  parts  that  compose  them !  How 
difficult  to  conceive  the  extreme  minuteness  of  the  muscles  neces- 
sary to  the  motion  of  the  heart,  the  glands  for  the  secretion  of  the 
fluids,  the  stomach  and  bowels  for  the  digestion  of  the  food,  the 
fineness  of  the  tubes,  nerves,  arteries,  veins;  and  above  all,  of  the 
blood,  the  lymph,  and  animal  spirits,  which  must  be  infinitely  more 
so  than  any  of  these  !  Here  the  utmost  stretch  of  imagination  is 
brought  to  the  test,  without  being  able  to  form  any  adequate  con- 
ception. But  these  inconceivable  wonders,  instead  of  conveying 

*  The  defects  of  art  are  easily  discovered  by  the  microscope;  but  the  more  narrowly 
we  pry  into  or  scrutinize  the  works  of  nature  by  this  instrument,  the  more  the  perfection 
of  the  inimitable  Artist  ia  made  to  appear.  Viewed  by  this  glass,  the  finest  needle  ever 
polished,  presents  to  the  eye  a  blunt  and  rugged  point ;  but  the  sting  of  a  bee,  however 
magnified,  still  retains  all  its  acuteness  of  termination. 

17* 


198  SCRIPTURE   NATURAL  HISTORY 

any  idea  of  imperfection  as  to  the  skill  of  the  Artist,  must,  from 
what  they  make  to  appear,  inspire  the  attentive  observer  with  very 
different  emotions,  and  force  him  to  exclaim, 

'  Thyself,  how  wond'rous  then! ' 

The  beauty  and  symmetry  of  some  of  these  minute  objects,  so 
viewed,  arq  surprising  indeed.  What  a  metamorphosis  do  they 
seem  to  undergo  under  the  magic-working  glass !  Creatures  that 
before  seemed  small  and  despicable,  now  '  appear  the  pride  of  na- 
ture, wherein  she  has  bestowed  more  nice  and  delicate  art,  and  dis- 
played more  profusely  the  rich  embroidery  and  elegant  beauties 
and  garniture  of  colors,  than  in  any  of  the  larger  species  of  animals.' 
Even  the  dust  that  adheres  to  the  butterfly's  wing,  and  to  which  it 
owes  the  beautiful  tints  and  variegated  hues  that  adorn  it,  is  said  to 
be  an  innumerable  collection  of  extremely  small  feathers,  as  perfect 
in  the  structure  and  symmetry  of  the  arrangement,  as  they  are  beau- 
tiful in  the  coloring. 

But  this  is  not  all.  The  veiy  circumstances  adduced  as  marks 
of  imperfection  in  the  insect  tribes ;  viz.  their  being  enabled  to  Jive 
for  some  time  after  being  deprived  of  those  organs  necessary  to  life 
in  the  higher  ranks,  and  their  amazing  numbers,  ought  rather  to  be 
considered  as  arguments  to  the  contrary.  The  former  is  no  doubt 
essentially  necessary  to  the  preservation  of  a  species  exposed  to  so 
many  casualties  as  those  in  particular  who  live  on  blood,  and  can- 
not, therefore,  partake  of  a  meal,  without  giving  their  enemies  no- 
tice of  their  presence;  and  the  latter,  to  prevent  the  extinction  of  a 
short-lived  race,  which  come  into  existence  at  a  time  when  there 
are  so  many  open  mouths  ready  to  devour  them. 

Without  these  two  characteristic  distinctions  of  the  insect  tribes, 
although  they  may  be  deemed  imperfections  by  the  more  imperfect 
powers  of  short-sighted  mortals,  it  is  probable  that,  long  ere  now, 
some  of  those  exquisite  pieces  of  nature's  workmanship  must  have 
disappeared  from  the  creation,  and,  for  want  of  those  connecting 
links,  the  whole  beautiful  fabric  of  the  universe  must  have  fallen  to 
decay.  For,  trifling  as  some  of  these  minute  or  imperceptible  ob- 
jects may  appear,  the  language  of  philosophy  is — 

'  Each  crawling  insect  holds  a  rank 
Important  in  the  plan  of  HIM  who  framed 
This  scale  of  beings  ;  holds  a  rank,  which,  lost, 
Would  break  the  chain,  and  leave  a  gap 
That  Nature's  self  would  rue.' 

Instead,  therefore,  of  having  the  presumption  to  stigmatize,  in 
the  most  remote  degree,  this  particular  order  of  the  creatures  of 
the  Almighty,  as  affording  evidences  of  imperfection,  let  us  rather, 
from  similar  considerations,  adopt  the  words  of  the  more  judicious 
Swammerdam :  « After  an  attentive  examination,'  says  he,  *  of  the 
nature  and  anatomy  of  the  smallest  as  well  as  the  largest  animals, 
I  cannot  help  allowing  the  least,  an  equal  or  perhaps  a  superior 
degree  of  dignity.  If,  while  we  dissect  with  care  the  larger  ani- 


INSECTS.  199 

raals,  we  are  filled  with  wonder  at  the  elegant  disposition  of  their 
parts,  to  what  a  height  is  our  astonishment  raised,  when  we  discov- 
er all  these  parts  arranged  in  the  least,  in  the  same  regular  manner ! ' 
And,  to  sum  up  the  matter  in  the  words  of  another  naturalist :  '  Of 
this  dispute  it  is  only  necessary  to  observe,  that  the  wisdom  of  the 
Creator  is  so  conspicuous  in  all  his  works,  and  such  surprising  art 
is  discovered  in  the  mechanism  of  the  body  of  every  creature,  that 
it  is  very  difficult  if  not  impossible,  to  say  where  it  is  most  and 
where  it  is  least  to  be  observed. 

We  have  already  pointed  out  the  Mosaic  distinction  between 
clean  arid  unclean  insects,  to  which  the  reader  is  referred. 


SECTION  I. 
WINGLESS   INSECTS, 

THE    SCORPION, 


THE  Scorpion  is  the  largest  and  most  malignant  of  all  the  insect 
tribes.  From  the  above  engraving,  it  will  be  seen  that  it  somewhat 
resembles  the  lobster  in  its  general  appearance,  but  is  much  more 
hideous.  Those  found  in  Europe  seldom  exceed  four  inches  in 
length,  but  in  the  tropical  climates  it  is  not  an  unusual  thing  to  meet 
with  them  twelve  inches  long. 

There  are  few  animals  more  formidable,  and  none  more  irascible, 
than  the  scorpion  ;  but,  happily  for  mankind,  it  is  equally  destruc- 
tive to  its  own  species  as  to  other  animals.  Goldsmith  states,  that 
Maupertius  put  about  a  hundred  of  them  together  in  the  same  glass, 
and  they  scarcely  came  into  contact,  when  they  began  to  exert  all 
their  rage  in  mutual  destruction  ;  so  that,  in  a  few  days,  there  re- 
mained but  fourteen,  which  had  killed  and  devoured  all  the  rest. 
But  their  malignity  is  still  more  apparent  in  their  cruelty  to  their 
offspring.  He  enclosed  a  female  scorpion,  big  with  young,  in  a 
glass  vessel,  and  she  was  seen  to  devour  them  as  fast  as  they  were 
excluded.  There  was  only  one  of  the  number  that  escaped  the 
general  destruction,  by  taking  refuge  on  the  back  of  its  parent;  and 
this  soon  after  revenged  the  cause  of  its  brethren,  by  killing  the  old 
one  in  its  turn.  Such  is  the  terrible  nature  of  this  insect ;  and  it  is 
even  asserted,  that  when  placed  in  circumstances  of  danger,  from 
which  it  perceives  no  way  of  escape,  it  will  sting  itself  to  death. 
Surely,  says  Mr.  Taylor,  Moses  very  properly  mentions  scorpions 
among  the  dangers  of  the  wilderness,  Deut.  viii.  15.  And  what 
phall  we  think  of  the  hazardous  situation  of  Ezekiel,  who  is  said  to 
dwell  among  scorpions  (ch.  ii.  6) — people  as  irascible  as  this  terri- 


THE  SPIDER.  201 

ble  insect  ?  Nor  could  our  Lord  select  a  fitter  contrast :  *  If  a  son 
shall  ask  of  his  father  an  egg,  will  he  give  him  a  scorpion  ?'  Luke 
xi.  11, 12. 

But  the  passage  most  descriptive  of  the  scorpion,  is  Rev.  ix.  3— 
10,  in  which  it  is  to  be  observed,  that  the  sting  of  this  creature  was 
not  to  produce  death,  but  pain  so  intense  that  the  wretched  suffer- 
ers should  seek  death — desire  to  die — (ver.  6)  rather  than  submit  to 
its  endurance.  Dr.  Shaw  states,  that  the  sting  of  scorpions  is  not 
always  fatal ;  the  malignity  of  their  venom  being  in  proportion  to 
their  size  and  complexion.  The  torment  of  a  scorpion  when  he 
strikes  a  man,  is  thus  described  by  Dioscorides  :  *  When  the  scor- 
pion has  stung,  the  place  becomes  inflamed  and  hardened  ;  it  red- 
dens by  tension,  and  is  painful  by  intervals,  being  now  chilly,  now 
burning.  The  pain  soon  rises  high,  and  rages,  sometimes  more, 
sometimes  less.  A  sweating  succeeds,  attended  by  a  shivering  and 
trembling ;  the  extremities  of  the  body  become  cold ;  the  groin 
swells  ;  the  bowels  expel  their  wind  ;  the  hair  stands  on  end ;  the 
members  become  pale,  and  the  skin  feels  throughout  it  the  sensa- 
tion of  a  perpetual  pricking,  as  if  by  needles.' 

Our  Saviour  gave  his  disciples  power  to  tread  upon  these  terri- 
ble creatures,  and  to  disarm  them  of  their  means  of  hurting,  Luke 
x.  19. 

It  may  be  necessary  to  remark,  on  the  contrast  which  our  Lord 
draws  between  a  scorpion  and  an  egg,  that  the  body  of  this  insect 
is  much  like  an  egg :  and  Bochart  has  shown  that  the  scorpions  of 
Judea  were  about  the  size  of  an  egg. 

The  Jews  used  whips  on  some  occasions,  which  were  called, 
from  the  suffering  they  occasioned,  scorpions.  To  these  it  is  prob- 
able the  haughty  Rehoboam  alluded,  when  he  menaced  the  house 
of  Israel  with  increasing  their  oppressions,  1  Kings  xii.  11. 


THE    SPIDER. 


THOMPSON  describes  with  great  accuracy,  the  loathsome  char- 
acter of  this  well-known  insect.  Formed  for  a  life  of  rapacity, 
and  incapable  of  living  upon  any  other  than  insect  food,  all  its  hab- 
its are  calculated  to  deceive  and  surprise.  It  spreads  toils  to  entan- 
gle its  prey ;  it  is  endued  with  patience  to  expect  its  coming ;  and 


202  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

is  possessed  of  arms  and  strength  to  destroy  it,  when  fallen  into  the 
snare. 

In  this  country,  where  all  the  insect  tribes  are  kept  under  by  hu- 
man industry,  the  spiders  are  but  small  and  harmless ;  but  in  other 
parts  of  the  globe  they  are  formidable  and  dangerous.  Burckhardt 
describes  one  which  he  saw  killed  near  Mount  Sinai,  as  being  about 
four  inches  and  a  half  in  length,  of  which  the  body  was  three  inches. 
It  had  five  long  legs  on  botlPfcsides,  covered,  like  the  body,  with  a 
seta?  of  a  light  yellow  color.  The  head  was  long  and  pointed,  with 
large  black  eyes,  and  the  mouth  armed  with  two  pairs  of  fangs,  one 
above  the  other,  recurved  and  extremely  sharp.  The  Bedouins  en- 
tertain the  greatest  dread  of  them  ;  they  say  that  their  bite,  if  not 
always  mortal,  produces  a  great  swelling,  almost  instant  vomiting, 
and  the  most  excruciating  pains. 

The  spider  is  only  twice  mentioned  in  scripture  ;  and  in  both  in- 
stances the  inspired  writers  allude  to  the  conduct  and  lot  of  wicked 
men.  The  first  passage  in  which  it  occurs,  is  Job  viii.  14, 15, 
where  the  punishment  of  the  hypocrite  is  denounced  :  *  Whose 
hope  shall  be  cut  off,  and  whose  trust  shall  be  a  spider's  web.  He 
shall  lean  upon  his  house,  but  it  shall  not  stand :  he  shall  hold  it 
fast,  but  it  shall  not  endure :' — a  proverbial  allusion,  says  Mr.  Good, 
and  so  exquisite,  that  it  is  impossible  to  conceive  any  figure  that  can 
more  strongly  describe  the  utter  vanity  of  the  hopes  and  prosperity 
of  the  wicked.  This  writer  believes  that  the  passage  has  never 
been  understood ;  and  therefore,  though  rendered  in  a  thousand 
different  manners,  has  never  been  translated  satisfactorily.  We 
subjoin  his  translation;  and  part  of  his  note : 

Can  the  paper-reed  grow  up  without  ooze  7 

Can  the  bull-rush  grow  up  without  water  > 

Yet,  in  the  midst  of  its  own  greenness, 

Uncut,  and  before  every  other  herb,  doth  it  wither! 

Such  are  the  ways  of  all  that  forget  God  I 

So  perisheth  the  confidence  of  the  hypocrite  ! 

Thus  shall  his  support  rot  away, 

And  the  building  of  the  spider  be  his  reliance  : 

And  upon  its  building  shall  he  lean,  but  it  shall  not  stand  ; 

He  shall  grasp  at  it,  but  it  shall  not  hold. 

Ver.  11-15. 

'  The  speaker  is  still  continuing  his  comparisons,  and  the  entire 
beauty  of  the  passage  depends  upon  our  accompanying  him  inahis 
extension  of  it.  'As  the  moisture  of  these  succulent  plants  evapo- 
rates before  that  of  all  others,  so  perisheth  the  confidence  of  the 
hypocrite ;  and  as  the  ooze  and  stagnant  water,  from  which  they 
derive  their  support,  instead  of  continuing  its  salubrious  nourish- 
ment, grow  putrid,  and  yield  an  intolerable  stench,  so  shall  the  sup- 
port of  the  hypocrite  putrify  likewise  :  it  shall  dissolve  into  empti- 
ness, and  nauseate  him  as  it  flies  away.' 

The  other  passage  is  Isaiah  lix.  5,  6 :  '  They  hatch  cockatrice 
eggs,  and*  weave  the  spider's  web — their  webs  shall  not  become  gar- 
ments, neither  shall  they  cover  themselves  with  their  works :  their 
works  are  works  of  iniquity,  and  the  act  of  violence  is  in  their 


THE  LOUSE.  203 

hands.'— The  deceitful  veil  which  he  throws  over  the  deformity  of 
his  character,  can  remain  only  for  a  short  time ;  like  the  spider's 
web  it  shall  soon  be  swept  away,  and  his  loathsome  form  exposed 
to  every  eye.  He  shall  perish  in  the  ruins  of  that  habitation  which 
he  constructed  with  so  much  care,  and  where  he  reposed  in  fatal 
security. 

Our  translators  have  found  the  spider  in  Prov.  xxx.  28  ;  but  the 
opinion  of  Bochart,  that  the  newt,  a  species  of  small  lizard,  is  meant4 
is  more  likely  correct. 


THE    FLEA. 

THIS  contemptible  and  blood-thirsty  little  animal  was  well  known 
in  every  part  of  the  world,  and  was  chosen  by  the  persecuted  son 
of  Jesse,  as  an  object  of  comparison  for  the  purpose  of  reproving 
the  folly  of  the  incensed  king  of  Israel,  1  Sam.  xxiv.  14  ;  ch.  xxvi. 
20.  The  idea  seems  to  be,  that  while  it  would  cost  Saul  much  to 
catch  the  object  of  his  pursuit,  his  success  would  afford  him  but 
little  advantage. 


THE    LOUSE. 

ONE  of  the  plagues  brought  upon  the  land  of  Egypt,  by  Pharaoh's 
obstinate  and  iniquitous  oppression  of  the  children  of  Israel,  was 
produced  by  a  swarm  of  cerwn,  rendered  '  lice '  by  Josephus,  the 
Rabbins,  and  most  modern  commentators,  in  whose  defence  Bochart 
and  Bryant  have  adduced  many  arguments,  supported  by  consider- 
able learning  and  ability.  On  the  other  hand,  the  LXX,  who  dwelt 
in  Egypt,  arid  who,  it  must  be  supposed,  knew  better  than  we  can 
pretend  to,  what  was  intended  by  the  Hebrew  name,  render  it  gnats  ; 
and  their  interpretation  is  confirmed  Philo,  himself  also  an  Alexan- 
drian Jew,  and  by  Origen,  a  Christian  father,  who  likewise  lived  at 
Alexandria.  The  latter  describes  them  as  winged  insects,  but  so 
small  as  to  escape  any  but  the  acutest  sight,  and  he  adds,  that  when 
settled  on  the  body,  they  wound  it  with  a  most  sharp  or  painful 
piercer.  Dr.  Geddes,  who  maintains  this  opinion,  remarks  that  Bo- 
chart and  Bryant  ought  not  to  have  so  confidently  appealed  to  the 
Syriac  and  Chaldee  versions,  as  being  in  their  favor ;  for  the  word 
they  use,  is  without  sufficient  authority  translated  pediculus,  in  the 
Polyglott  and  by  Buxtorf.  From  Bar  Bahlul,  the  prince  of  Syriac 
lexicographers,  we  learn  that  the  corresponding  Syriac  word  de- 
notes an  animalcule  hurtful  to  the  eyebrows,  animalcula  palpebirs 


204  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

inimica.  Nor  is  it  to  be  doubted,  that  the  Chaldee  has  the  same 
meaning. 

It  will  be  remarked,  says  Mr.  Taylor,  that  the  miracles  perform- 
ed in  Egypt,  refer  mostly,  if  not  entirely,  to  the  water  and  to  the 
air.  Gnats  would  be  a  mixture  of  both,  as  they  originate  in  the 
water ;  and  after  citing  several  writers  who  speak  of  the  torment 
occasioned  by  the  sting  of  this  insect,  and  of  the  great  quantities  in 
which  they  are  found  in  Egypt,  and  some  parts  of  the  East,  he  con- 
cludes, by  observing, '  The  reader  will  judge  from  these  representa- 
tions whether  the  gnat  does  not  bid  fair  to  be  the  Hebrew  cenim  : 
being  winged,  it  would  spread  over  a  district  or  country  with  equal 
ease  as  over  a  village  or  a  city,  and  would  be  equally  terrible  to  cat- 
tle as  to  men.  It  seems,  also,  to  precede  the  dog-fly  or  zimb,  with 
great  propriety. 

Isaiah  li.  6  is  rendered,  in  our  version,  'they  shall  die  in  like  man- 
ner; '  a  sense  which  destroys  the  force  and  beauty  of  the  prophet's 
meaning.  It  may  be  better  rendered,  '  The  earth  shall  wax  old 
like  a  garment,  and  they  that  dwell  therein  shall  die  as  a  gnat.* 
Certainly  the  ephemeral  life  of  any  species  of  gnats  would,  as 
Geddes  remarks,  be  a  fitter  image  of  the  transitoriness  of  human 
life,  than  the  very  uncertain  duration  of  the  life  of  a  louse  :  besides 
that,  the  figure  would  be  less  ignoble,  and  more  congruous  to  tho 
dignity  of  the  subject. 


SECTION  II, 
WINGED    INSECTS. 

THE    FLY. 

of  the  plagues  sent  upon  the  incorrigible  Egyptians,  consist- 
ed of  a  swarm  of  flies,  Exodus  viii.  21,  24.  The  original  term  em- 
ployed, is  ore&,  which  the  LXX  translate  by  the  dog-fly ;  and  they 
have  been  followed  by  the  learned  Bochart,  and  most  modern  in- 
terpreters. For  a  description  of  this  insect,  as  found  in  Ethiopia, 
we  are  indebted  exclusively  to  Mr.  Bruce. 

'This  insect  is  call  Zimb;  it  has  not  been  described  by  any  nat- 
uralist. It  is,  iu  size,  very  little  larger  than  a  bee,  of  a  thicker  pro- 
portion, and  his  wings,  which  are  broader  than  those  of  a  bee,  placed 
separate  like  those  of  a  fly ;  they  are  of  pure  gauze,  without  col- 
or or  spot  upon  them.  The  head  is  large,  the  upper  jaw  or  lip  is 
sharp,  and  has  at  the  end  of  it  a  strong  pointed  hair,  of  about  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  long ;  the  lower  jaw  has  two  of  these  pointed 
hairs;  and  this  pencil  of  hairs,  when  joined  together,  makes  a  resist- 
ance to  the  finger,  nearly  equal  to  that  of  strong  hog's  bristles.  Its 
legs  are  serrated  in  the  inside,  and  the  whole  covered  with  brown 
hair  or  down.  As  soon  as  this  plague  appears,  and  their  buzzing 
is  heard,  all  the  cattle  forsake  their  food,  and  run  wildly  about  the 
plain,  till  they  die,  worn  out  with  fatigue,  fright,  and  hunger.  No 
remedy  remains,  but  to  leave  the  black  earth,  and  hasten  down  to 
the  sands  of  Atbara;  and  there  they  remain,  while  the  rains  last, 
this  cruel  enemy  never  daring  to  pursue  them  farther. 

'Though  his  size  be  immense  as  his  strength,  and  his  body  cov- 
ered with  a  thick  skin,  defended  with  strong  hair,  yet  even  the  cam- 
el is  not  capable  to  sustain  the  violent  punctures  the  fly  makes  with 
his  pointed  proboscis.  He  must  lose  no  time  in  removing  to  the 
sands  of  Atbara ;  for  when  once  attacked  by  this  fly,  his  body,  head, 
and  legs  break  out  into  large  bosses,  which  swell,  break,  and  putri- 
fy,  to  the  certain  destruction  of  the  creature.  Even  the  elephant 
and  rhinoceros,  who,  by  reason  of  their  enormous  bulk,  and  the 
vast  quantity  of  food  and  water  they  daily  need,  cannot  shift  to 
desert  and  dry  places,  as  the  season  may  require,  are  obliged  to  roll 
themselves  in  rnud  and  mire,  which,  when  dry,  coats  them  over 
like  armor,  and  enables  them  to  stand  their  ground  against  this 
winged  assassin  ;  yet  I  have  found  some  of  these  tubercles  upon  al- 
most every  elephant  and  rhinoceros  that  I  have  seen,  and  attribute 
18 


206  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

them  to  this  cause.  All  the  inhabitants  of  the'sea-coast  of  Melinda, 
down  to  Cape  Gardefan,  to  Saba,  and  the  south  coast  to  the  Red 
Sea,  are  obliged  to  put  tfiemselves  in  motion,  and  remove  to  the 
next  sand,  in  the  beginning  of  the  rainy  season,  to  prevent  all  their 
stock  of  cattle  from  being  destroyed.  This  is  not  a  partial  emigra- 
tion ;  the  inhabitants  of  all  the  countries,  from  the  mountains  of 
Abyssinia  northward,  to  the  confluence  of  the  Nile,  and  Astaboras, 
are  once  a  year  obliged  to  change  their  abode,  and  seek  protection 
on  the  sands  of  Beja;  nor  is  there  any  alternative,  or  means  of  avoid- 
ing this,  though  a  hostile  band  were  in  their  way,  capable  of  spoil- 
ing them  of  half  their  substance. 

*  Of  all  those  that  have  written  upon  these  countries,  the  prophet 
Isaiah  alone  has  given  an  account  of  this  animal,  and  the  manner 
of  its  operation,  Jsaiah  vii.  18,  19 :  '  And  it  shall  come  to  pass,  in 
that  day,  that  the  Lord  shall  hiss  for  the  fly  that  is  in  the  uttermost 
part  of* the  rivers  of  Egypt ;  and  they  shall  come,  and  shall  rest  all 
of  them  in  the  desolate  valleys,  and  in  the  holes  of  the  rocks,  and 
upon  all  thorns,  and  upon  all  bushes.' — That  is,  they  shall  cut  off 
from  the  cattle  their  usual  retreat  to  the  desert,  by  taking  posses- 
sion of  those  places,  and  meeting  them  there,  where  ordinarily  they 
never  come,  and  which,  therefore,  were  the  refuge  of  the  cattle. 

'  We  cannot  read  the  history  of  the  plagues  which  God  brought 
upon  Pharaoh  by  the  hands  of  Moses,  without  stopping  a  moment 
to  consider  a  singularity,  a  very  principal  one,  which  attended  this 
plague  of  the  fly,  Exodus  viii.  20,  &c.  It  was  not  till  this  time, 
by  means  of  this  insect,  that  God  said,  he  would  separate  his  peo- 
ple from  the  Egyptians.  And  it  would  seem,  that  a  law  was  given 
to  them,  that  fixed  the  limits  of  their  habitation.  It  is  well  known, 
as  I  have  repeatedly  said,  that  the  land  of  Goshen  or  Geshen,  the 
possession  of  the  Israelites,  was  a  land  of  pasture,  which  was  not 
tilled  or  sown,  because  it  was  not  overflowed  by  the  Nile.  But 
the  land  overflowed  by  the  Nile,  was  the  black  earth  of  the  valley 
of  Egypt,  and  it  was  here  that  God  confined  the  flies ;  for,  he  says, 
it  shall  be  a  sign  of  this  separation  of  the  people,  which  he  had 
,  then  made,  that  not  one  fly  should  be  seen  in  the  sand,  or  pasture- 
ground,  the  land  of  Goshen ;  and  this  kind  of  soil  has  ever  since 
been  the  refuge  of  all  cattle,  emigrating  from  the  black  earth,  to 
the  lower  part  of  Atbara,  Isaiah,  indeed,  says,  that  the  fly  diall  be 
in  all  the  desert  places,  and,  consequently,  the  sands ;  yet  this  was 
a  particular  dispensation  of  Providence,  to  a  special  end,  the  desola- 
tion of  Egypt,  and  was  not  a  repeal  of  the  general  law,  but  a  con- 
firmation of  it ;  it  was  an  exception  for  a  particular  purpose,  and  a 
limited  time. 

'  I  have  already  said  so  much  on  this  subject,  that  it  would  be 
tiring  my  reader's  patience,  to  repeat  any  t.hkig  concerning  him ;  I 
shall,  therefore,  content  myself  by  giving  .a  very  accurate  design  of 
him,  only  observing  that,  ibr  distinctness  sake,  I  have  magnified 
him  sometbuig  above  twice  the  natural  size.  He  has  no  sting, 
though  he  seems  to  me  to  be  rather  of  the  bee  kind ;  but  his  mo- 


THE  FLY.  207 

tion  is  more  rapid  and  sudden  than  that  of  the  bee,  and  resembles 
that  of  the  gad-fly  in  England.  There  is  something  particular  in 
the  sound  or  buzzing  of  this  insect.  It  is  a  jarring  noise,  together 
with  a  humming ;  which  induces  me  to  believe  it  proceeds,  at 
least,  in  part,  from  a  vibration  made  with  the  three  hairs  at  his 
snout. 

It  is  a  well  known  fact,  that  the  Egyptians  paid  a  superstitious 
worship  to  several  sorts  of  flies  and  insects ;  and  this,  as  the  learned 
Bryant  has  shown,  gave  a  peculiar  character  to  the  judgment 
brought  upon  them  by  the  plague  of  flies,  since  their  punishment 
was  inflicted  by  means  of  the  very  things  they  revered,  and  which 
none  of  the  spells  or  charms  of  the  magicians  and  priests  could  in 
any  way  propitiate. 

Among  the  ridiculous  idols  worshipped  by  the  ancient  Canaan- 
ites,  Beel-zebub,  the  god  of  flies,  appears  to  have  been  one,  as  he 
had,  during  the  times xof  the  Old  Testament  history,  a  famous  tem- 
ple and  oracle  at  Ekron,  2  Kings  i.  This  name  was  afterwards 
used  by  the  Jews  to  signify  *  the  prince  of  devils,'  Matthew  x.  24, 
&c. 

In  Hosea  iv.  16,  we  read  of  Israel  sliding  back  '  as  a  blacksliding 
heifer,'  where  the  original  signifies,  properly,  a  cow  which  has  been 
etung  by  a  gad-fly,  or  other  insect,  and  refers  to  those  retreats  of 
safety  to  which  the  animal  betakes  itself  under  such  circum- 
stanpes. 


208  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

THE     HORNET. 


THIS  voracious  and  destructive  insect  was  employed  by  Jehovah 
for  the  purpose  of  driving  the  enemies  of  Israel  from  the  land  of 
promise,  Exod.  xxiii.  38 ;  Deut.  vii.  20 ;  Josh.  xxiv.  12.  Several 
commentators  understand  these  passages  metaphorically,  as  denot- 
ing the  terror  of  the  Lord,  or  some  remarkable  disease  which  he 
commissioned  to  lay  waste  the  country  before  the  armies  of  Israel ; 
from  a  conception  that  an  insect  of  this  description  was  altogether 
inadequate  to  accomplish  such  a  purpose.  But  we  see  no  necessi- 
ty to  depart  from  the  literal  interpretation  of  the  texts.  The  hor- 
net, which  belongs  to  the  species  Cra&ro,  and  is  of  the  genus  vespa 
or  wasp,  is  a  most  voracious  insect,  and  is  exceedingly  strong  for 
its  size,  which  is  generally  an  inch  long,  though  Dr.  Clarke  states 
he  has  seen  some  an  inch  and  a  half  long,  and  so  strong,  that  hav- 
ing caught  one  in  a  small  pair  of  forpeps,  it  repeatedly  escaped  by 
using  violent  contortions,  so  that  at  last  he  was  obliged  to  abandon 
all  hope  of  securing  it  alive,  which  he  wished  to  have  done.  How 
distressing  and  destructive  a  multitude  of  these  might  be,  says  this 
.eminent  writer,  any  person  may  conjecture :  even  the  bees  of  one 
hive  would  be  sufficient  to  sting  a  thousand  men  to  madness  ;  but 
how  much  worse  must  wasps  and  hornets  be !  No  armor,  no  wea- 
pons, could  avail  against  these.  A  few  thousands  of  them  would 
be  quite  sufficient  to  throw  the  best  disciplined  army  into  confusion 
and  rout. 

But  instances  of  whole  nations  being  driven  from  their  countries 
by  insects  of  different  kinds,  is  attested  by  many  ancient  authors  ; 
and  what  is  particularly  applicable  here  is,  that  according  to  JElian, 
the  Phaselians,  a  people  descended  from  the  Canaanites,  and  who 
dwelt  about  the  mountains  of  Solyma,  were  driven  out  of  their 
AQuntry  by  wasps. 


THE  MOTH. 


THE    GNAT. 

THIS  insect  is  mentioned  only  in  Matt,  xxiii.  24,  and  Bochart  has 
labored  to  prove  that  the  Greek  word  means  a  kind  of  insect  which 
is  bred  in  the  lees  of  wine,  and  that  ever  after  lives  on  acids,  avoid- 
ing sweets.  It  may  be  so,  but  several  writers  have  stated,  that  in 
the  East  the  gnats  are  extremely  numerous,  and  are  very  apt  to  fall 
into  wine,  if  it  be  not  carefully  covered.  This  may  help  us  to  un- 
derstand the  passage  to  which  we  have  referred,  where  there  is  an 
evident  opposition  between  the  gnat  which  the  hypocritical  pro- 
fessors of  purity  are  said  to  strain  out,  and  the  camel  which  they 
are  said  to  swallow.  See  page  53. 


THE    MOTH, 

Tflts  insect  is  mentioned  in  several  passages  of  Scripture,  either 
as  destroying  by  its  ravages,  or  as  affording  a  striking  emblem  of 
the  fleetness  and  frailty  of  human  life.  The  comparison  of  man,  on 
account  of  his  littleness  and  the  shortness  of  his  life,  to  a  worm,  or 
an  insect,  is  common  in  the  sacred  writings ;  but  in  no  other  part  of 
them,  nor  in  any  other  writings  whatsoever,  is  the  metaphor  so  ex- 
tensively applied,  or  so  admirably  supported,  as  in  the  Book  of  Job. 
Thus,  in  the  address  of  Eliphaz  to  the  venerable  patriarch : — '  What, 
then,  are  the  dwellers  in  houses  of  clay,  whose  foundation  is  in  the 
dust  ?  They  are  crushed  before  the  moth.'  chap.  iv.  19.  To  the 
same  purpose  the  Psalmist  expresses  himself,  when  deprecating  the 
judgments  of  God  :— '  Remove  thy  stroke  away  from  me :  I  am 
consumed  by  the  blow  of  thine  hand.  When  thou  with  rebukes 
•dest  correct  man  for  iniquity,  thou  makest  his  beauty  to  consume 
;away  like  a  moth :  surely  every  man  is  vanity,  Selah,'  Ps.  xxxix. 
110,  11. 

The  idea  in  both  these  passages  seems  to  be,  that  as  the  moth 
crumbles  into  dust  under  the  slightest  pressure,  or  the  gentlest  touch  ; 
so  man  dissolves  with  equal  ease,  and  vanishes  into  darkness,  un- 
der the  finger  of  the  Almighty, 

How  sublime  is  the  sentiment,  and  how  expressive  the  language, 
in  the  following  passages :  they  need  no  comment : — 

Behold,  the  Lord  God  will  help  me  ; 
Who  i»  he  that  shall  condemn  me  J 
I,o,  they  shall  all  wax  old  as  a  garment  ; 
The  moth  shall  eat  th«tn  up.— Isa.  1.  9. 

18* 


aiO  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

Fear  ye  not  the  reproach  of  men, 

Neither  be  ye  afraid  of  their  re'vilings  ; 

For  the  moth  shall  oat  them  u|>  like  a  garment, 

And  the  worm  shall  wu  thorn  like  wool. 

But  my  righteousness  shall  be  forever, 

And  my  salvation  from  generation  to  generation.— cA.  li.  7, 8, 

In  Job  xxvii.  18,  there  is  another  reference  to  this  insect,  deserv- 
ing of  notice.  Speakinjr  of  the  oppressors  of  the  poor,  the  afflicted 
patriarch  says: — 'He  buildeth  his  house  like  a  moth,  or  like  a  shed 
which  the  watchman  contriveth.'  That  is,  feeble  in  it?  structure 
and  materials,  short  in  its  duration,  and  equally  incapable  of  resist- 
ing a  thunder-storm  or  a  shower  of  rain.  So,  in  chap.  viii.  14:— 
'Thus,  shall  his  support  rot  away,  and  the  BUILDING  OF  THE  SPIDER 
be  his  reliance.'  The  genus  phalaena,  or  moth,  is  divided  into  plant- 
moths  and  cloth -moths ;  the  latter  have  generally  been  supposed  to 
be  those  immediately  alluded  to  in  this  passage.  This  is  doubtful, 
but  the  question  is  not  of  consequence  ;  the  house  or  building  re- 
ferred to  is  that  provided  by  the  insect  in  its  larve  or  caterpillar 
state,  as  a  temporary  residence  during  its  wonderful  change,  from 
a  chrysalis  to  a  winged  or  perfect  insect.  The  slightriess  of  this 
habitation  is  well  known  to  every  one  who  has  attended  to  the  cu- 
rious operations  of  the  silk-worm,  or  the  tribes  indigenous  to  the 
plants  of  our  own  country.  Of  these,  some  construct  a  solitary 
dwelling,  while  others  are  gregarious,  vast  numbers  residing  togeth- 
er under  one  common  web,  marshalled  with  the  most  exact  regu- 
larity. The  web  of  the  cloth-moth  is  formed  of  the  very  substance 
of  the  cloth  on  which  it  reposes,  devoured  for  this  purpose,  and  af- 
terwards worked  into  a  tubular  case,  with  open  extremities,  and 
generally  approaching  to  the  color  of  the  cloth  by  which  the  worm 
is  nourished. 

Among  the  injunctions  which  our  Saviour  impressed  on  the 
minds  of  his  disciples,  in  his  inimitable  sermon,  in  Matthew,  chap, 
yi.,  we  find  one  in  which  there  is  a  reference  to  the  insatiable  vo- 
racity of  the  moth  :  '  Lay  not  up  for  yourselves  treasures  upon  earth, 
•where  moth  and  rust  doth  corrupt,'  &c.  ver.  19,  20.  The  destruc- 
tion which  they  very  frequently  occasion  among  woollen  clothes, 
in  our  own  country,  is  well  known  to  almost  every  person,  but  in  the 
East  there  are  different  species  of  this  insect,  and  some  of  a  kindred 
description,  of  whose  ravages  we  can  form  but  a  very  imperfect 
conception. 


THE  BEE,  211 

T  II  E     BEE. 


SHAKSPEARE,  our  great  poet,  has  admirably  described  the  laws 
and  order  of  a  community  of  these  industrious,  useful,  and  well 
known  insects.  To  attempt  even  an  outline  of  the  natural  history 
of  the  bee  would  occupy  more  space  than  can  be  devoted  to  this 
entire  article ;  we  must,  therefore,  refer  the  reader  who  is  desirous 
of  the  information,  to  other  works,  and  proceed  to  notice  those 
passages  of  Scripture  in  which  it  is  spoken  of,  and  which  require 
elucidation. 

In  Judges  xiv.  8,  we  are  informed  that  Samson  on  inspecting  the 
carcass  of  a  lion  which  he  had  some  time  previously  killed,  found 
that  a  swarm  of  bees  had  taken  up  their  residence  in  it.  We  notice 
the  circumstance,  because  it  has  been  supposed  to  contradict  the 
statement  of  Aristotle  and  other  eminent  naturalists,  who  affirm  that 
bees  will  not  alight  upon  a  dead  carcass,  nor  taste  the  flesh  ;  that 
they  will  never  sit  down  in  an  unclean  place,  nor  upon  any  thing 
which  emits  an  unpleasant  smell.  The  variance  between  this  state- 
ment arid  that  of  the  sacred  writer,  is,  however,  only  apparent.  The 
frequently  occurring  phrase  introduced  into  this  text — '  after  a  time,* 
shows  that  the  circumstance  referred  to  was  long  posterior  to  the 
death  of  the  animal,  whose  body,  from  an  exposure  to  beasts  and 
birds  of  prey,  and  the  violent  heat  of  the  sun,  was  reduced  to  a 
mere  skeleton,  and  divested  of  all  effluvia.  That  bees  have  swarm- 
ed in  dry  bones  we  have  the  testimony  of  Herodotus,  of  Seranus, 
and  of  Aldrovandus.  Indeed,  as  bones  in  their  nature,  when  dry, 
nre  exceedingly  dry,  there  is  no  more  to  be  said  against  such  a 
place  of  residence  than  against  the  same  among  rocks  and  stones. 

Some  writers  have  contended  that  bees  are  destitute  of  the  sense 
of  hearing ;  but  their  opinion  is  entirely  without  foundation.  This 
will  appear,  if  any  proof  were  necessary,  from  the  following  pre- 
diction :  '  And  it  shall  come  to  pass  in  that  day,  that  the  Lord  shall 
hiss  for  the  fly  that  is  in  the  uttermost  parts  of  the  rivers  of  Egypt; 
and  for  the  bee  that  is  in  the  land  of  Assyria,'  Isaiah  vii.  18.  The 
allusion  which  this  text  involves,  is  to  the  practice  of  calling  out 
the  bees  from  their  hives  by  a  hissing  or  whistling  sound,  to  their 
labor  in  the  fields,  and  summoning  them  again  to  return  when  the 
heavens  begin  to  lower,  or  the  shadows  of  evening  to  fall.  In  this 
manner,  Jehovah  threatens  to  arouse  the  enemies  of  Judah,  and  lead 


212  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

them  to  the  prey.  However  widely  scattered,  or  far  remote  from 
the  scene  of  action,  they  should  hear  his  voice,  and  with  as  much 
promptitude  as  the  bee,  that  has  been  taught  to  recognize  the  signal 
of  its  owner,  and  obey  his  call,  they  should  assemble  their  forces; 
and  although  weak  and  insignificant  as  a  swarm  of  bees  in  the  esti- 
mation of  a  proud  and  infatuated  people,  they  should  come  with 
irresistible  might,  and  take  possession  of  the  rich  and  beautiful  re- 
gion that  had  been  abandoned  by  its  terrified  inhabitants. 

The  allusion  of  Moses  to  the  attack  of  the  Amorites,  which  in- 
volves a  reference  to  the  irritable  and  revengeful  disposition  of  the 
bee  is  both  just  and  beautiful :  « And  the  Amorites  which  dwelt  in 
that  mountain  came  out  against  you,  and  chased  you  as  bees  do, 
and  destroyed  you  in  Seir,  even  unto  Hormah,'  Deut.  i.  44.  Every 
person  who  has  seen  a  swarm  of  disturbed  bees,  will  easily  conceive 
the  fierce  hostility  and  implacable  fury  of  the  enemies  of  Israel, 
which  this  expression  is  intended  to  denote.  The  same  remarks 
will  apply  to  Psalm  xviii.  12,  in  which  there  is  a  similar  allusion. 

The  surprising  industry  of  the  bee  has,  from  the  earliest  times, 
furnished  man  with  a  delicious  and  useful  article,  in  the  honey 
which  it  produces. 

This  was  very  common  in  Palestine.  In  Exod.  iii.  8,  &c.  the 
circumstance  of  its  flowing  with  milk  and  honey  is  selected  as  a 
striking  proof  of  its  being  the  glory  of  all  lands ;  and  in  Deut.xxxii. 
13,  and  Ps.  Ixxxi.  36,  the  inhabitants  are  said  to  have  sucked 
honey  out  of  the  rocks.  With  this  agree  2  Sam.  xiv.  25  ;  Matt.  iii. 
4,  &c.  and  the  testimony  of  intelligent  travellers.  Hasselquist  says, 
that  between  Acra  and  Nazareth,  great  numbers  of  wild  bees  breed, 
to  the  advantage  of  the  inhabitants  ;  and  Maundrel  observes,  that 
when  in  the  great  plain  near  Jericho,  he  perceived  in  many  places 
a  smell  of  honey  and  wax,  as  strong  as  if  he  had  been  in  an  apiary. 

It  is  reasonably  supposed,  however,  that  the  honey  mentioned  in 
some  of  these  passages  was  not  the  produce  of  bees,  but  a  sweet 
syrup  produced  by  the  date-tree,  which  was  common  in  Palestine, 
and  which  is  known  to  have  furnished  an  article  of  this  description. 
There  is  also  in  some  parts  of  the  East,  a  kind  of  honey  which 
collects  upon  the  leaves  of  the  trees,  something  like  dew,  and  which 
is  gathered  by  the  inhabitants  in  considerable  quantities.  Jt  is  very 
sweet  when  fresh,  but  turns  sour  after  being  kept  two  days.  The 
Arabs  eat  it  with  butter ;  they  also  put  it  into  their  gruel,  and  use 
it  in  rubbing  their  water  skins,  for  the  purpose  of  excluding  the  air. 
It  is  collected  in  the  months  of  May  and  June;  and  some  persons 
assured  our  traveller  that  the  same  substance  was  likewise  prodnced 
by  the  thorny  tree  Tereshresh  at  the  same  time  of  the  year. 

Honey  was  prohibited  as  an  offering  on  the  altar,  under  the  Le- 
vitical  dispensation,  (Lev.  ii.  11,)  but  its  first-fruits  were  to  be  pre- 
sented for  the  support  of  the  priests,  ver.  12.  Some  writers  have 
supposed  that  these  first-fruits  were  of  the  honey  of  the  date,  but 
such  an  interpretation  is  forced  and  unnatural :  the  articles  intend- 
ed in  verse  12,  are  obviously  the  same  as  those  which  are  specified 
in  the  preceding  verse. 


THE  ANT.  213 

Honey  newly  taken  out  of  the  comb  has  a  peculiar  delicacy  of 
flavor,  which  will  in  vain  be  sought  for,  after  it  has  been  for  any 
length  of  time  expressed  or  clarified.  This  will  heip  to  explain  the 
energy  of  expression  adopted  by  the  Psalmist,  when  speaking  of 
the  divine  laws :  'More  to  be  desired  are  they  than  gold,  yea,  than 
much  fine  gold  ;  sweeter  also  than  honey,  and  the  droppings  of  hon- 
ey-combs,' Ps.  xix.  10. 

A  fine  lesson  on  the  necessity  of  moderation  is  taught  by  Solomon, 
Prov.  xxv.  16:  'Hast  thou  found  honey?  eat  so  much  as  is  suffi- 
cient for  thee,  lest  thou  be  filled  therewith  and  vomit  it.'  Upon  this 
passage,  Harris  has  cited  the  following  observations  of  Dr.  Knox: 
'Man,  indeed,  may  be  called  a  bee  in  a  figurative  style.  In  search 
of  sweets,  he  roams  in  various  regions,  and  ransacks  every  inviting 
flower.  Whatever  displays  a  beautiful  appearance  solicits  his  no- 
tice, and  conciliates  his  favor,  if  not  his  affection.  He  is  often  de- 
ceived by  the  vivid  color  and  attractive  form,  which  instead  of  sup- 
plying honey,  produce  the  rankest  poison ;  but  he  perseveres  in  his 
researches,  and  if  he  is  often  disappointed,  he  is  also  often  success- 
ful. The  misfortune  is,  that  when  he  has  found  honey,  he  enters 
upon  the  feast  with  an  appetite  so  voracious  that  he  usually  destroys 
his  own  delight  by  excess  and  satiety, 


THE     ANT. 


THE  ant  has  been  famous,  from  all  antiquity,  for  its  social  and  in- 
dustrious habits,  and  for  its  spirit  of  subordination.  It  is  as  a  pat- 
tern of  parsimony  to  the  profuse;  and  of  unremitting  diligence  to 
the  sluggard,  Prov.  vi.  6. 

In  Prov.  xxx.  25,  the  ant  is  spoken  of  as  one  of  the  four  diminu- 
tive tilings  upon  earth,  which  are  exceeding  wise :  'The  ants  are  a 
people  not  strong,  yet  they  prepare  their  meat  in  the  summer;'  an 
expression  usually  understood  of  their  laying  up  stores  of  provision 
in  summer  against  approaching  winter;  an  opinion  generally  en- 
tertained by  the  ancients,  though  modern  naturalists  question  the 
fact.  Till  the  manners  of  exotic  ants  are  more  accurately  explored, 
however,  it  would  be  rash  to  affirm  that  no  ants  have  magazines  of 


214  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

provisions ;  for,  although,  during  the  cold  of  our  winters  in  this 
country,  they  remain,  for  the  most  part,  in  a  state  of  torpidity,  and 
have  no  need  of  food,  yet  in  warmer  regions,  during  the  rainy  sea- 
sons, when  they  are  probably  confined  to  their  nests,  a  store  of  pro- 
vision may  be  necessary  for  them.  Even  in  northern  climates, 
against  wet  seasons,  they  may  provide  in  this  way  for  their  suste- 
nance and  that  of  their  young  brood,  which,  as  Mr.  Smeatham  ob- 
serves, are  very  voracious,  and  cannot  bear  to  be  long  deprived  of 
their  food ;  else  why  do  ants  carry  worms,  living  insects,  and  ma- 
ny other  such  things  into  their  nests  ? 

Solomon's  lesson  to  the  sluggard  has  generally  been  adduced  as 
a  strong  confirmation  of  the  ancient  opinion  ;  it  can,  however,  only 
relate  to  the  species  of  a  warm  climate,  the  habits  of  which  are 
probably  different  from  those  of  a  cold  one ;  so  that  his  words,  as 
commonly  interpreted,  may  be  perfectly  correct  and  consistent 
with  nature,  and  yet  be  not  at  all  applicable  to  the  species  of  ant 
indigenous  to  Europe.  But  if  Solomon's  remarks  are  properly 
considered,  it  will  be  found  that  this  interpretation  has  been  father- 
ed upon  them,  rather  than  fairly  deduced  from  them.  He  does 
not  affirm  that  the  ant,  which  he  proposes  to  his  sluggard  as  an  ex- 
ample, laid  up  in  her  magazine  stores  of  grain  ;  but  that  with  con- 
siderable prudence  and  foresight,  she  makes  use  of  the  proper  sea- 
son to  collect  a  supply  of  provision  sufficient  for  her  purposes. 
There  is  not  a  word  in  them  implying  that  she  stores  up  grain  or 
other  provision.  She  prepares  her  bread,  and  gathers  her  food, 
namely,  such  food  as  is  suited  to  her,  in  summer  and  harvest — that 
is,  when  it  is  most  plentiful ;  and  thus  shows  her  wisdom  and  pru- 
dence by  using  the  advantages  offered  to  her.  The  words^  thus 
interpreted,  which  they  may  be  without  any  violence,  will  apply  to 
the  species  among  us  as  well  as  to  those  that  are  not  indigenous. 

In  several  parts  of  the  east  there  is  a  species  of  this  insect  which 
is  ex.remely  destructive  to  almost  every  kind  of  property,  and  which 
may  perhaps  help  to  illustrate  Matt.  vi.  18,  19,  although  the  insect 
there  spoken  of,  is  belonging  to  another  genus.  We  quote  the  fol- 
lowing from  Forbes'  *  Oriental  Memoirs.' 

'The  termites,  or  white  ants  of  Bombay,  are  so  numerous  and 
destructive  at  Anjengo,  that  it  is  difficult  to  guard  against  their  de- 
predations :  in  a  few  hours  they  will  demolish  a  large  chest  of  books, 
papers,  silk,  or  clothes,  perforating  them  with  a  thousand  holes. 
We  dare  not  leave  a  box  on  the  floor  without  placing  it  on  glass 
bottles,  which,  if  kept  free  from  dust,  they  cannot  ascend.  But  this 
is  trifling  when  compared  with  the  serious  mischief  they  sometimes 
occasion,  by  penetrating  the  beams  of  a  house,  or  destroying  the 
timbers  in  a  ship.  These  destructive  animals  advance  by  myriads 
to  their  work,  under  an  arched  incrustation  of  fine  sand,  tempered 
with  a  moisture  from  their  body,  which  renders  the  covert  way  as 
hard  as  burnt  clay,  and  effectually  conceals  them  while  at  their  in- 
sidious employment. 

'  I  could  mention  many  curious  instances  of  depredation  by  the 


THE  ANT.  215 

termites :  one  happened  to  myself  I  left  Anjengo  in  the  rainy  sea- 
son, to  pass  a  few  weeks  with  the  chief,  at  his  country  house  at  Ed- 
dova,  in  a  rural  and  sheltered  situation  :  on  my  departure  I  locked 
up  a  room,  containing  books,  drawings,  and  a  few  valuables:  as  I 
took  the  key  with  me  the  servant  could  not  enter  to  clean  the  fur- 
niture :  the  walls  of  the  room  were  white-washed,  adorned  with 
prints  and  drawings,  in  English  frames  and  glasses ;  returning  home 
in  the  evening,  and  taking  a  cursory  view  of  my  cottage  by  candle- 
light, I  found  every  thing  apparently  in  the  same  order  as  I  left  it ; 
but  on  a  nearer  inspection  the  next  morning,  I  observed  a  number 
of  advanced  works,  in  various  directions,  towards  my  pictures  ;  the 
glasses  appeared  to  be  uncommonly  dull,  and  the  frames  covered 
with  dust:  on  attempting  to  wipe  it  offj  I  was  astonished  to  find 
the  glasses  fixed  to  the  wall,  not  suspended  in  frames  as  I  left  them, 
but  completely  surrounded  by  an  incrustation  cemented  by  the 
white-ants,  who  had  actually  eaten  up  the  deal  frames  and  back 
boards,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  paper,  and  left  the  glasses  upheld 
by  the  incrustations,  or  covered  way,  which  they  had  formed  dur- 
ng  their  depredation.  From  the  flat  Dutch  bottles,  on  which  the 
drawers  and  boxes  were  placed,  not  having  been  wiped  during  my 
absence,  the  ants  had  ascended  the  bottles  by  means  of  the  dust, 
eaten  through  the  bottom  of  a  chest,  and  made  some  progress  in 
perforating  the  books  arid  linen.  The  chief's  lady,  with  whom  I 
had  been  staying  at  Eddova,  on  returning  to  her  apartments  in  the 
fort/found,  from  the  same  cause,  a  large  chest,  in  which  she  had 
deposited  shawls,  muslins,  and  other  articles,  collected  preparatory 
to  bejr  leaving  India,  entirely  destroyed  by  these  voracious  insects*' 


216  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

THE  LOCUST. 


THIS  is  Certainly  the  most  terrible  and  destructive  insect  with 
"which  we  are  acquainted,  and  the  immense  numbers  in  which  they 
collect  when  undertaking  a  predatory  expedition,  often  renders  it 
impossible  to  put  a  stop  to  their  ravages,  which  in  such  cases  ter- 
minate in  the  most  complete  desolation. 

The  locust,  of  which  there  are  many  species,  has  several  names 
in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  each  of  which  is  characteristic  of  some 
feature  in  its  nature  or  manners. 

The  great  brown  locust,  which  is  the  one  with  which  we  are 
best  acquainted,  is  about  three  inches  in  length,  has  two  horns  or 
feelers  about  an  inch  long,  and  two  pair  of  wings:  the  back  is  pro- 
tected by  a  shield  of  a  greenish  color;  and  its  general  form  much 
resembles  that  of  a  common  grasshopper. 

On  several  occasions  these  formidable  creatures  have  been  used 
as  a  scourge  in  the  hand  of  the  incensed  Majesty  of  heaven  for 
chastising  a  guilty  world.  Among  the  plagues  which  the  perverse 
and  impious  conduct  of  the  haughty  Pharaoh  brought  upon  his 
country,  was  a  swarm  of  locusts,  which  *  covered  the  face  of  the 
whole  land,  so  that  the  earth  was  darkened ;  and  they  devoured 
every  green  herb  of  the  earth,  and  the  fruit  of  every  tree  which  the 
liail  had  left.  Nothing  green  remained  either  on  the  trees  or  on 
the  herbs  of  the  earth,  throughout  the  whole  land  of  Egypt.'  Exod. 
X.  15.  A  similar  calamity  happened  to  the  Africans  in  the  time  of 
the  Romans,  and  about  one  hundred  and  twenty-three  years  be- 
fore Christ.  An  immense  number  of  locusts  covered  the  whole 
country,  consumed  every  plant  and  blade  of  grass  in  the  fields, 
without  sparing  the  roots  and  the  leaves  of  the  trees,  with  the  ten- 
drils upon  which  they  grew.  These  being  exhausted,  they  pen- 
etrated with  their  teeth  the  bark,  however  bitter,  and  even  caroded 
the  dry  and  solid  timber.  After  they  had  accomplished  this  terri- 
ble destruction,  a  sudden  blast  of  wind  dispersed  them  into  differ- 
ent portions,  and  after  tossing  them  awhile  in  the  air,  plunged  their 
innumerable  hosts  into  the  sea.  But  the  deadly  scourge  was  not 
then  at  an  end ;  the  raging  billows  threw  up  enormous  heaps  of 


THE  LOCUST.  217 

their  dead  and  corrupted  bodies,  upon  that  long  extended  coast, 
which  produced  a  most  insupportable  and  poisonous  stench.  This 
soon  brought  on  a  pestilence,  which  affected  every  species  of  ani- 
mals ;  so  that  birdsj  and  sheep,  and  cattle,  and  even  the  wild  beasts 
of  the  field,  perished  in  great  numbers;  and  their  carcasses,  being 
soon  rendered  putrid  by  the  foulness  of  the  air,  added  greatly  to 
the  general  corruption.  The  destruction  of  the  human  species 
was  horrible  ;  in  Numidia,  where  at  that  time  Micipsa  was  king, 
eighty  thousand  persons  died;  and  in  that  part  of  the  sea  coast 
which  bordered  upon  the  region  of  Carthage  and  Utica,  two  hun- 
dred thousand  are  said  to  have  been  carried  off  by  this  pestilence. 

The  immense  number  in  which  locusts  migrate,  is  spoken  of  by 
several  travellers  of  respectability.  Mr.  Brown,  in  his  travels  in 
Africa,  says,  'An  area  of  nearly  two  thousand  square  miles  might 
be  said  to  be  literally  covered  by  them.'  Mr.  Forbes  states,  that 
when  at  Barodha,  in  India,  where  the  locust  is  not  near  so  perni- 
cious as  in  Africa  and  Arabia,  he  saw  a  flight  of  them  extending 
above  a  mile  in  length,  and  half  as  much  in  breadth  ;  they  appear- 
ed, as  the  sun  was  in  the  meridian,  like  a  black  cloud  at  a  distance. 
As  they  approached  from  the  east,  the  density  of  tjie  host  obscured 
the  solar  rays,  cast  an  awful  gloom,  like  that  of  an  eclipse,  over 
the  garden  where  he  was,  and  caused  a  noise  like  a  rushing  of  a 
torrent.  They  were  near  an  hour  in  passing  over  the  spot.  In 
Kirby  and  Spence's  Entomology  it  is  said,  that  one  of  the  swarms 
which  entered  Transylvania,  in  August,  1748,  was  several  hundred 
fathoms  in  width  (at  Vienna  the  breadth  of  one  of  them  was  three 
miles),  and  extended  to  so  great  a  length  as  to  be  four  hours  in 
passing  over  the  Red  Tower ;  and  such  was  its  density  that  it  to- 
tally intercepted  the  solar  light,  so  that  when  they  flew  low,  one 
person  could  not  see  another  at  the  distance  of  twenty  paces. 

These  extracts,  which  might  be  greatly  multiplied,  will  show  the 
propriety  of  the  Scripture  references  to  the  numerical  strength  of 
the  locust  armies.  See  Judg.  vi.  5;  vii.  12;  Psalm  cv.  34;  Jer. 
xlvi.  23;  Nah.  iii.  15,  &c. ;  for  although  our  translation  has  'grass- 
hopper' in  some  of  these  passages,  the  locust  is  no  doubt  the  crea- 
ture intended  by  the  original. 

But  the  most  particular  description  of  the  locust  in  the  sacred 
writings,  is  that  in  Joel  ii.  3 — 10.  *  A  fire  devoureth  before  them ; 
and  behind  them  a  flame  burneth:  the  land  is  as  the  garden  of 
Eden  before  them,  and  behind  them  a  desolate  wilderness ;  yea, 
nothing  shall  escape  them,  &c. 

This  is,  perhaps,  one  of  the  most  striking  and  animated  pictures 
to  be  found  in  the  whole  compass  of  prophecy.  The  contexture 
of  the  passage  is  extremely  curious;  and  the  double  destruction  to 
be  produced  by  locusts,  and  the  enemies  of  which  they  were  the 
harbingers,  is  painted  with  the  most  expressive  force,  and  describ- 
ed with  the  most  terrible  accuracy.  We  may  fancy  the  destroying 
army  moving  before  us  while  we  read,  and  the  desolation  spread- 
ing while  we  turn  over  the  pages. 
19 


218  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

Many  writers  mention  the  resemblance  which  the  head  of  the 
locust  bears  to  that  of  the  horse ;  whence  the  Italians  call  them 
cavalette.  But  the  prophet  does  not  appear  to  be  describing  the 
shape  of  the  insect,  when  he  compares  it  to  a  horse,  but  rather  its 
properties,  its  fierceness,  and  its  swift  motion.  Thus,  in  Rev.  ix. 
7,  the  locusts  are  compared  to  horses  prepared  for  the  battle  ;  furi- 
ous and  impatient  for  the  war. 

The  noise  of  their  coming  shall  be  heard  at  a  distance,  like  the 
sound  of  chariots  passing  over  the  mountains.  When  they  fall  on 
the  ground  and  leap  from  place  to  place,  and  devour  the  fruits,  the 
sound  of  them  will  resemble  the  crackling  of  the  stubble  when  con- 
suming by  the  flames ;  or  the  din  and  clamor  of  an  army  ready 
prepared  to  engage  in  battle. 

How  this  description  agrees  to  the  locusts,  is  shown  abundantly 
by  Bochart,  who  tells  us,  from  several  authors,  that  they  fly  with  a 
great  noise  ;  as  John  has  also  described  them, '  The  sound  of  their 
wings  was  as  the  sound  of  chariots,  of  many  horses  running  to  bat- 
tle,' (Rev.  ix.  9.) ;  that  they  may  be  heard  at  six  miles  distance  ;  and 
that  when  they  are  eating  the  fruits  of  the  earth,  the  sound  is  like 
that  of  a  flame  driven  by  the  wind. 

The  prophet  adds — 

Before  them  the  earth  quaketh,  the  heavens  tremble  j 
The  sun  and  the  moon  are  darkened, 
And  the  stars  withdraw  their  shining. 

Dr.  Shaw,  by  whose  excellent  zoological  remarks  so  many  pas- 
sages in  the  sacred  writings  have  been  elucidated,  has  shown,  from 
the  testimony  of  his  own  observation,  that  these  poetical  expressions 
are  scarcely  hyperbolical  with  respect  to  this  formidable  insect.  And 
Pliny,  the  Roman  naturalist,  gives  a  description  of  its  migratory 
swarms  almost  equally  sublime  with  that  of  the  eastern  poet.  'This 
plague,'  says  he,  '  is  considered  as  a  manifestation  of  the  wrath  of 
the'gods.  'For  they  appear  of  an  unusual  size  ;  and  fly  with  such 
a  noise,  from  the  motion  of  their  wings,  that  they  might  be  taken 
for  birds.  They  darken  the  sun.  And  the  nations  view  them  in 
anxious  suspense  ;  each  apprehensive  lest  their  own  lands  should 
be  overspread  by  them.  For  their  strength  is  unfailing  ;  and,  as  if 
it  were  a  small  thing  to  have  crossed  oceans,  they  pervade  immense 
tracts  of  land,  and  cover  the  harvests  with  a  dreadful  cloud  ;  their 
very  touch  destroying  many  of  the  fruits  of  the  earth,  but  their  bite 
utterly  consuming  all  its  products,  and  even  the  houses.' 

The  account  which  Volney  gives  of  these  insects,  and  of  their 
devastations,  is  a  wonderful  illustration  of  this  passage  of  the  proph- 
et. .*  Syria, ,  as  well  as  Egypt,  Persia,  and  almost  all  the  South  of 
Asia,  is  subject  to  a  calamity  no  less  dreadful  than  that  of  the  vol- 
canoes and  earthquakes  I  have  mentioned :  I  mean  those  clouds  of 
locusts  so  often  mentioned  by  travellers.  The  quantity  of  these  in- 
sects is  incredible  to  all  who  have  not  themselves  witnessed  their 
Astonishing  numbers:  the  whole  earth  is  covered  with  them,  for  the 


THE  LOCUST.  219 

space  of  several  leagues.  The  noise  they  make  in  browsing  on  the 
trees  and  herbage,  may  be  heard  at  a  great  distance,  and  resembles 
that  of  an  army  in  secret.  The  Tartars  themselves  are  a  less  de- 
structive enemy  than  these  little  animals.  One  would  imagine 
that  fire  had  followed  their  progress.  Wherever  their  myriads 
spread,  the  verdure  of  the  country  disappears ;  trees  and  plants 
stripped  of  their  leaves,  and  reduced  to  their  naked  boughs  and 
stems,  cause  the  dreary  image  of  winter  to  succeed  in  an  instant  to 
the  rich  scenery  of  the  spring.  When  these  clouds  of  locusts  take 
their  flight,  to  surmount  any  obstacles,  or  to  traverse  more  rapidly 
a  desert  soil,  the  heavens  may  literally  be  said  to  be  obscured  with 
them.  Happily  this  calamity  is  not  frequently  repeated,  for  it  is 
the  inevitable  forerunner  of  famine,  and  the  maladies  it  occasions. 
The  locust  is  employed  in  the  Book  of  Revelation,  to  symbolize 
the  countless  and  savage  hordes  that  fought  under  the  banners  of  the 
Saracen  princes :  'And  there  came  out  of  the  smoke  locusts  upon 
the  earth,  and  unto  them  was  given  power,  as  the  scorpions  of  the 
earth  have  power, — and  their  torment  was  as  the  torment  of  a  scor- 
pion, when  he  striketh  a  man  ;— and  the  shapes  of  the  locusts  were 
like  unto  horses  prepared  unto  battle  ;  and  on  their  heads  were,  as 
it  were,  crowns  of  gold,  and  their  faces  were  as  the  faces  of  men. 
And  they  had  hair  as  the  hair  of  women :  and  their  teeth  were  as 
the  teeth  of  lions.  And  they  had  breast-plates,  as  it  were  breast- 
plates of  iron,  and  the  sound  of  their  wings  was  as  the  sound  of 
chariots  of  many  horses  running  to  battle.  And  they  had  tails  like 
scorpions,  and  there  were  stings  in  their  tails, — and  they  had  a  king 
over  them,'  Rev.  ix.  1 — 12.  This  remarkable  comparison,  says 
Paxton,  is  almost,  in  every  particular,  quite  familiar  to  the  Arabs. 
Niebuhr,  in  his  description  of  Arabia,  informs  us,  that  an  Arab  of 
the  desert  near  Bassorah,  mentioned  to  him  a  singular  comparison 
of  the  locust  with  other  animals.  The  terrible  locust  of  this  pas- 
sage not  then  occurring  to  him,  he  regarded  the  comparison  as  a 
jest  of  the  Arab,  and  paid  no  attention  to  it,  till  it  was  repeated  by 
another  from  Bagdad.  He  compared  the  head  of  the  locust  to  that 
of  the  horse  ;  its  breast  to  that  of  the  lion ;  its  feet  to  those  of  the 
camel ;  its  body  to  that  of  the  serpent ;  its  tail  to  that  of  the  scorpi- 
on ;  its  horns  to  the  locks  of  hair  of  a  virgin  ;  and  so  of  the  other 
parts. 

We  have  already  remarked,  that  almost  all  writers  on  natural 
history  notice  that  the  head  of  a  locust  bears  a  striking  resemblance 
to  that  of  a  horse.  The  Greeks  called  it  the  horse  of  the  earth. 
Accoutred  for  war,  and  mounted  by  a  stern  and  bearded  warrior, 
the  Arabian  charger  has  a  majestic  and  terrible  appearance :  not  less 
dreadful  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  east  is  the  locust,  in  all  the  vigor 
of  youth,  ready  to  commence  his  destructive  march.  The  Saracen 
furnished  his  horse  with  a  silver  bridle,  and  gilt  trappings,  and  cov- 
ered his  neck  and  breast  with  plates  of  iron :  it  is,  therefore,  not 
improbable,  that  he  adorned  his  head  with  some  ornament  resem- 
bling a  crown,  to  which  the  horns  or  antennae  of  the  locust  may  net 


220  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

improperly  be  compared.  The  neck  of  this  formidable  insect  is 
also  defended  by  a  hard  scaly  substance,  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
neck  of  the  Arabian  war-horse  was  defended  by  plates  of  iron.  The 
Arabian  horse  is  carefully  taught  to  recognise  his  enemy  in  the 
field  of  battle,  which  he  no  sooner  does,  than  he  rushes  upon  him 
with  the  utmost  violence,  and  attempts  to  tear  him  in  pieces  with 
his  teeth.  The  teeth  of  the  locust  are  very  sharp  and  strong.  With 
what  astonishing  rapidity  this  insect  devours  every  green  thing,  and 
scatters  desolation  over  the  fairest  regions  of  the  earth,  has  already 
been  described ;  from  whence  it  appears,  that  the  comparison  of 
the  Saracen  horse  to  the  locust,  is  by  no  means  inapplicable.  Nor 
is  the  sound  of  their  wings  less  remarkable :  the  inspired  writer 
says,  *  The  sound  of  their  wings  was  as  the  sound  of  chariots  of 
many  horses  running  to  battle ;'  and  travellers  have  stated,  that 
'the  passage  of  the  locust  over  their  heads  was  like  the  noise  of  a 
great  cataract.' 

A  great  deal  has  been  written  on  the  nature  of  the  food  adopted 
by  John  the  Baptist,  one  article  of  which  is  stated  to  have  been 
*  locusts,'  Matt.  iii.  4.  The  dispute  has  been  as  to  whether  these 
were  the  insects  so  called,  or  the  fruit  of  a  certain  tree  designated 
by  the  same  name.  That  locusts  properly  so  called  were  allowed 
to  the  Jews  as  an  article  of  food,  is  certain  from  Lev.  xi.  22  ;  and 
that  they  are  actually  used  for  this  purpose  in  many  parts  of  the 
East,  we  have  the  testimony  of  several  unexceptionable  writers. 
But  notwithstanding  this,  we  are  of  opinion  that  the  insect,  which 
required  curing  and  cooking,  and  which  is  deemed  by  the  Arabs  a 
great  delicacy,  formed  no  part  of  the  plain  and  simple,  and  as  it 
would  appear  both  from  the  testimony  of  scripture,  and  from  the 
customs  of  the  pseudo  disciples  of  John,  still  existing  in  Syria,  the 
exclusively  vegetable  diet  of  the  holy  Baptist. 


SECTION  III. 
DUBIOUS   INSECTS 

THE    BEETLE. 


THE  beetle  is  mentioned  only  in  Lev.  xi.  22.  It  is  thought  by 
some  critics  to  be  a  species  of  the  locust,  but  by  others,  the  very 
kind  of  scarabseus  which  the  ancient  Egyptians  held  in  such  vener- 
ation as  to  pay  it  divine  honors. 


THE   CANKER-WORM. 

IN  the  Philosophical  Transactions  there  is  a  paper  on  the  bruchus, 
a  great  number  of  which  were  found  in  Ireland,  in  the  year  1688. 
We  shall  present  our  readers  with  a  few  extracts  from  this  work, 
leaving  them  to  form  their  own  judgment,  as  to  the  identity  of  the 
insect  described  with  the  canker-worm  of  scripture. 

'These  insects  appeared  first  on  the  south-west  coast  of  the  coun- 
ty of  Galway,  whence  they  made  their  way  into  the  more  inland 
parts,  where  multitudes  of  them  showed  themselves  among  the  trees 
and  hedges  in  the  day-time,  hanging  by  the  boughs,  thousands  to- 
gether, in  clusters,  sticking  to  the  back  of  one  another,  as  is  the 
manner  of  bees  when  they  swarm.  In  this  posture,  or  lying  still, 
and  covert  under  the  leaves  of  the  trees,  or  clinging  to  the  branches, 
19* 


222  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

they  continued  quiet,  with  little  or  no  motion,  during  the  heat  of  the 
sun,  but  towards  evening  or  sun-set  they  would  all  rise,  disperse , 
and  fly  ahout,  with  a  strange  humming  noise,  much  like  the  beat- 
ing of  drums  at  some  distance,  and  in  such  vast  incredible  numbers, 
that  they  darkened  the  air  for  the  space  of  two  or  three  miles 
square. 

'  A  short  while  after  their  coming,  they  had  so  entirely  eat  up 
and  destroyed  all  the  leaves  of  the  trees  for  some  miles  round  about, 
that  the  whole  country,  though  it  was  in  the  middle  of  summer,  was 
left  as  bare  and  naked  as  if  it  had  been  in  the  depth  of  winter,  mak- 
ing a  most  unseemly,  and,  indeed,  frightful  appearance :  and  the 
noise  they  made  whilst  they  were  seizing  and  devouring  this,  their 
prey,  was  as  surprising ;  for  the  grinding  of  the  leaves  in  the  mouths 
of  this  vast  multitude  all  together,  made  a  sound  very  much  resem- 
bling the  sawing  of  timber.  Nor  were  the  trees  abroad,  and  the 
hedges  in  the  field  the  only  sufferers  by  this  vermin  ;  they  came  al- 
so into  the  gardens,  and  destroyed  the  buds,  blossoms,  and  leaves  of 
all  the  fruit  trees,  that  they  were  left  perfectly  naked ;  nay,  many  of 
them  that  were  more  delicate  than  the  rest,  lost  their  sap  as  well  as 
leaves,  and  quite  withered  away,  so  that  they  never  recovered  it 
again.  Nay,  their  multitude  spread  so  exceedingly,  that  they  dis- 
turbed men  in  even  their  dwellings ;  for  out  of  the  gardens  they  got 
into  the  houses,  where  numbers  of  them  crawling  about  were  very 
irksome,  and  they  would  often  drop  on  the  meat  as  it  was  dressing 
in  the  kitchen,  and  frequently  fall  from  the  ceiling  of  the  rooms  in- 
to the  dishes  as  they  stood  on  the  table  while  they  ate ;  so  extreme- 
ly offensive  and  loathsome  were  they,  as  well  as  prejudicial  and 
destructive. 

'  Nor  did  the  mischievous  effects  of  this  pernicious  vermin  stop 
here  ;  their  numerous  creeping  spawn,  which  they  had  lodged  un- 
der ground  next  to  the  upper  sod  of  the  earth,  did  more  harm  in 
that  close  retirement,  than  all  the  flying  swarms  of  their  parents 
had  done  abroad  ;  for  this  young  destructive  brood  did  not  withhold 
from  what  was  much  more  necessary  to  have  been  spared,  and  what 
their  sires  had  left  untouched  :  these  lying  under  ground,  fell  to  de- 
vouring the  roots  of  the  corn  and  grass,  and  eating  them  up,  ruin- 
ed both  the  support  of  man  and  beast ;  for  these,  losing  thoir  roots, 
goon  withered  and  came  to  nought,  to  the  vast  damage  of  the 
country, 

*  But  notwithstanding  this  plague  of  vermin  did  thus  mightily  pre- 
vail and  infest  the  country,  yet  it  would  have  been  still  more  vio- 
lent, had  not  its  rage  been  fortunately  checked  several  ways.  High 
winds,  wet  and  misling  weather,  were  extremely  disagreeable  to 
the  nature  of  this  insect ;  arid  so  prejudicial  as  to  destroy  many 
millions  of  them  in  one  day's  time  :  whence  I  gather,  that  though 
we  have  them  in  these  northern  moist  climates,  they  are  more  nat- 
ural, and  more  peculiarly  belonging  to  warm  and  dry  countries. 
Whenever  these  ill  constitutions  of  the  air  prevailed,  their  bodies 
were  so  enfeebled,  they  would  let  go  their  holds,  and  drop  to  the 


THE  PALMER- WORM.  223 

ground  from  the  branches  where  they  stuck,  and  so  little  a  fall  as 
this,  at  that  time,  was  of  sufficient  force  quite  to  disable,  and  some- 
times perfectly  kill  them.  Nay,  it  was  observable,  that  even  when 
they  were  most  agile  and  vigorous,  a  slight  blow  or  offence  would 
for  some  time  hinder  their  motion,  if  not  deprive  them  of  life,  which 
was  very  extraordinary  in  a  creature  of  that  strength  and  vivacity 
in  its  flight.  During  these  unfavorable  seasons  of  weather,  the  swine 
and  poultry  of  the  country  at  length  grew  so  cunning,  as  to  watch 
under  the  trees  for  their  falling  ;  and  when  they  came  to  the  ground 
eat  them  up  in  abundance,  being  much  pleased  with  the  food,  and 
thriving  well  upon  the  diet ;  nay,  I  have  been  assured,  that  the 
poorer  sort  of  the  native  Irish  (the  country  then  laboring  under  a 
scarcity  of  provision)  had  a  way  of  dressing  them,  and  lived  upon 
them  as  food ;  nor  is  it  strange,  that  what  fattened  our  domestic 
poultry  and  hogs,  should  afford  agreeable  and  sufficient  nourish- 
ment for  the  relief  of  man. 

'But  towards  the  latter  end  of  the  summer,  the  exact  time  I  have 
not  learnt,  they  constantly  eased  the  country,  and  retired  of  them-, 
selves  ;  and  so  wholly  disappeared,  that  in  a  few  days  you  should 
not  see  one  left  in  all  those  parts  that  were  so  lately  pestered  with 
them. 

'  This  pernicious  insect  of  ours,  I  am  fully  convinced  from  good 
reasons,  is  that  self-same  so  often  mentioned  in  holy  Scripture,  and 
commonly  joined  in  company  with  the  locust,  as  being  both  great 
destroy ers  of  the  fruits  of  the  earth.' 


THE    CATERPILLAR. 

IN  Hebrew  this  insect  is  called  the  consumer,  and  in  1  Kings  viii, 
37 ;  2  Chron.  vi.  28 ;  Joel  i.  4 ;  chap.  ii.  25 ;  it  is  distinguished 
from  the  locust  properly  so  called.  In  Joel  i.  4,  it  is  mentioned  as 
eating  up  what  the  other  species  had  left,  and  therefore  might  well 
be  called  the  consumer,  by  way  of  eminence.  But  the  ancient  in- 
terpreters are  far  from  being  agreed  what  particular  species  it  sig^ 
nifies. 


THE    PALMER- WORM. 

BOCHART  is  of  opinion  that  this  insect  is  a  kind  of  locust,  fur- 
nished with  very  sharp  teeth,  with  which  it  gnaws  off  grass,  corn, 
leaves  of  trees,  and  even  their  bark.  The  Jews  support  this  idea 


224  SCRIPTURE   NATURAL   HISTORY. 

by  deriving  the  word  from  guz,  or  gazaz,  to  cut,  to  shear,  to  minoe. 
This  sharp  instrument  of  theirs  has  given  occasion  to  Pisidas  to 
compare  a  swarm  of  locusts  to  a  sword  with  ten  thousand  edges. 
Caterpillars  begin  their  ravages  before  the  locust,  which,  as  Mr. 
Taylor  observes,  seems  to  coincide  with  the  nature  of  the  creature 
here  intended  :  *  That  which  the  palmer-worm  hath  left  hath  theZo- 
cust  eaten ;  and  that  which  the  locust  hath  left  hath  the  canker- 
worm  eaten ;  and  that  which  the  canker-worm  hath  left  hath  the 
caterpittar  eaten.'  Joel  i.  4. 


BOTANY. 


THAT  branch  of  natural  history  which  relates  to  vegetables  has 
been  called  BOTANY,  from  botane,  a  plant  or  herb  ;  and  PHYTOLO- 
GY.  from  phylon,  a  plant,  and  logos,  a  discourse.  It  treats  of  their 
structure  and  functions,  the  systematical  arrangement  and  denomi- 
nation of  their  several  kinds,  and  their  peculiar  properties  and  uses. 

Were  all  the  known  objects  diffused  over  the  surface  of  this  earth 
submitted  to  the  examination  of  a  certain  number  of  individuals  ac- 
customed to  nice  and  patient  investigation,  but  altogether  ignorant 
of  any  arrangement  hitherto  proposed,  there  can  be  but  little  doubt 
that  the  same  classification  would  be  adopted  by  all ;  and  that  the 
objects  would  be  divided  into  three  grand  assemblages,  namely, 
minerals,  plants,  and  animals;  such  being,  in  fact,' for  the  purposes  of 
description,  at  least,  the  most  convenient  distribution  that  could  be 
adopted.  Thus  there  is  no  difficulty  in  distinguishing  this  mineral 
body  from  that  plant,  or  this  plant  from  a  horse,  an  elephant,  or 
any  other  quadruped.  Yet,  when  we  come  to  examine  the  con- 
lines  of  these  several  kingdoms  of  nature,  we  find  that  so  nice  are 
the  shades  and  gradations,  and  so  gradual  the  transitions  from  one 
class  of  bodies  to  the  other,  that  objects  frequently  present  them- 
selves, to  which  it  would  be  difficult  to  assign  their  proper  compart- 
ment. 

However  striking,  therefore,  the  distinctions  between  animal  and 
vegetable  life,  in  their  more  perfect  and  elaborate  forms,  as  we  ap- 
proach the  contiguous  extremities  of  the  two  kingdoms,  we  find 
these  distinctions  fading  away  so  gradually, 

Shade  unperceived,  so  softening  into  shade, 

and  the  mutual  advances  so  close  and  intimate,  that  it  becomes  a 
task  of  no  common  difficulty  to  draw  a  line  of  distinction  between 
them,  and  determine  to  which  of  them  an  individual  may  belong. 

The  structure  of  vegetables  is  truly  wonderful,  and  demands  our 
admiring  attention.  How  excellently  adapted  are  the  roots  for 
taking  hold  of  their  parent  earth,  as  well  as  for  drawing  nourish- 
ment for  the  support  of  the  plant,  and  imbibing  moisture  from  the 
neighboring  soil!  How  commodiously  are  the  various  tubes  and 
fibres  composing  the  trunk  or  stalk  arranged  for  the  motion  of  the 
sap  upwards,  to  all  the  extremities  of  the  leaves  and  branches! 
How  nicely  are  the  leaves  formed  for  the  important  services  they 
are  made  to  yield  in  the  economy  of  vegetation  !  What  an  excel- 
lent clothing  does  the  bark  afford,  not  only  for  protecting  the  stem 
and  branches  from  external  injury,  but  from  the  hurtful  extremes  of 


228  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

heat  and  cold  !  What  evident  marks  of  wisdom  and  design  do  the 
flowers  evince  in  their  beautiul  and  delicate  construction  ;  how 
nicely  are  they  formed  for  the  protection  and  nourishment  of  the 
first  and  tender  rudiments  of  the  fruit,  and  when  it  has  attained 
more  firmness  and  solidity,  how  readily  do  they  relinquish  their 
charge,  and  drop  off  in  decay,  when  no  longer  necessary  !  How 
wonderfully  does  the  fruit,  in  some  classes,  envelope  and  protect 
the  seed  till  it  has  arrived  at  maturity  ;  and  lastly,  what  a  passing 
strange  piece  of  organized  mechanism  is  the  seed  itself,  and,  being 
necessary  for  the  reproduction  of  its  species,  what  a  remarkable 
provision  is  made  for  its  preservation  and  succession  !  What  but 
the  wisdom  of  a  Deity  could  have  devised,  that  those  seeds  which 
are  most  exposed  to  the  ravages  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  forest 
should  be  not  only  doubly,  but  some  of  them  trebly  enclosed  ;  that 
those  most  in  request  as  articles  of  food,  should  be  so  hardy  and  so 
abundantly  prolific;  and  that  seeds  in  general,  which  are  the  spoit 
of  so  many  casualties,  and  exposed  to  injury  from  such  a  variety  of 
accidents,  should  be  possessed  of  a  principle  of  lasting  vitality, 
which  makes  it  indeed  no  easy  matter  to  deprive  them  of  th^ir 
fructifying  power !  Plants  are  also  multiplied  and  propagated  by 
a  variety  of  ways,  which  strengthen  the  provision  made  for  their 
succession. 

Nor  is  the  finger  of  Providence  less  visible  in  the  means  for  dif- 
fusing or  spreading  abroad  vegetables,  than  in  the  provision  made 
for  keeping  up  their  succession.  The  earth  may  be  said  to  be  full 
of  the  goodness  of  the  Lord;  but  how  comes  it  to  pass,  that  in 
parts  untrod  by  man,  and  on  the  tops  of  ruinous  buildings,  so  many 
varied  specimens  of  the  vegetable  creation  are  to  be  found  ?  Is  it 
not  from  the  manner  in  which  nature's  great  Husbandman  scatters 
his  seeds  about  ?  While  the  seeds  of  some  plants  are  made  suffi- 
ciently heavy  to  fail  down  and  take  up  their  abode  near  the  place 
of  their  nativity  ;  and  others,  after  having  been  swallowed  up  by 
quadrupeds,  are  deposited  in  the  neighboring  soil;  some  are  carried 
by  the  fowls  of  the  air  to  places  more  remote,  or,  being  furnished 
with  a  soft  plumage,  are  borne  on  the  winds  of  heaven  to  the  situa- 
tions allotted  for  them.  To  prevent  some  from  pitching  too  near, 
they  are  wrapped  up  in  elastic  cases,  which,  bursting  when  fully 
ripe,  the  prisoners  fly  abroad  in  all  directions.  To  prevent  others 
from  straying  too  far,  they  are  furnished  with  a  kind  of  grappling 
hooks,  that  arrest  them  in  their  flight,  and  attach  them  to  the  spot 
most  congenial  to  their  growth.  These  are  some  of  the  doings  of  the 
Lord,  and  are  wondrous  in  our  eyes  ! 

In  the  construction  of  plants  we  observe  a  considerable  differ- 
ence in  the  consistence  of  the  three  classes.  Compared  with  the 
shrubby  race,  how  hard,  firm,  and  tenacious  is  the  trunk  of  the 
majestic  oak  ;  and,  compared  with  the  herbaceous  tribe,  how  woody, 
tough,  and  elastic  is  the  hawthorn  twig!  But  ,for  this,  how 
could  the  mighty  monarch  of  the  wood  have  been  able  to  with- 
stand the  fury  of  the  tempest  ?  While  the  more  humble  and  lowly 


BOTANY.  229 

shrubs  stand  not  in  need  of  such  firmness  of  texture,  their  pliability 
and  elastic  toughness,  together  with  the  prickly  coat  of  mail  by 
which  they  are  enveloped,  render  them  less  susceptible  of  injury  in 
their  exposed  situation. 

Softness,  united  with  a  still  greater  degree  of  flexibility,  are 
the  distinguishing  characteristics  of  the  herbaceous  order ;  and  how 
wisely  has  this  been  ordered  for  the  various  purposes  ibr  which 
they  were  created !  With  the  firmness  of  trees,  to  what  a  prickly 
stubble  must  nature's  soft  and  downy  carpet  have  given  way ! 
With  the  tenacity  of  shrubs,  how  would  it  have  answered  as  food 
for  our  cattle  ? 

There  are,  besides,  a  number  of  other  properties  and  peculiari- 
ties in  the  vegetable  kingdom,  in  which  the  wonderful  working  of 
the  Divinity  shines  pre-eminent.  How  strange,  for  instance,  that 
if  a  seed  is  sown  in  a  reversed  position,  the  young  root  turns  of  it- 
seif  downwards,  while  the  stem  refuses  to  sink  deeper  in  the  soil, 
and  bends  itself  round  to  shoot  up  through  the  surface  of  the  earth  ! 
How  surprising,  that  when  the  roots  of  a  tree  or  a  plant  meet  with 
a  stone  or  other  interruption  in  their  progress  under  ground,  they 
change  their  direction,  and  avoid  it!  How  amazing,  that  the  nu- 
merous shoots  which  branch  out  from  the  root  in  quest  of  mois- 
ture, pursue,  as  it  were  by  instinct,  the  track  that  leads  to  it — turn 
from  a  barren  to  a  more  fertile  soil ;  and  that  plants  shut  up  in  a 
darksome  room,  bend  or  creep  to  any  aperture  through  which  the 
rays  of  light  may  be  admitted  ! 

in  these  respects,  the  vegetable  tribes  may  be  said  to  possess 
something  analogous  to  animal  life;  but  here  the  resemblance  does 
not  stop.  How  surprising  the  phenomenon  of  what  is  called  the 
sleep  of  plants,  and  the  sexual  system  of  Linna3tis,  founded  on  the 
discovery  that  there  exists  in  the  vegetable,  as  well  as  in  the  ani- 
mal kingdom,  a  distinction  of  sexes. 

What  amazing  variety  of  size,  of  shape,  and  of  hue,  do  we  dis- 
cover among  this  multitudinous  order  of  things !  What  different 
properties  do  some  possess  from  others ;  and  what  a  near  approach 
do  a  few  make  to  that  superior  order  immediately  above  them,  in 
the  scale  of  existence  J  The  sensitive  plant,  when  slightly  touched, 
evinces  something  like  the  timidity  of  our  harmless  animals;  the 
hedysarum  gyrans,  or  moving  plant  of  the  East,  exhibits  an  inces- 
sant and  spontaneous  movement  of  its  leaves  during  the  day,  in 
warm  and  clear  weather ;  but  in  the  night  season,  and  in  the  ab- 
sence of  light  and  heat,  its  motions  cease,  and  it  remains,  as  it  were, 
in  a  state  of  quiescence !  The  American  Venus'  flytrap,  like  an 
animal  of  prey,  seems  to  lie  in  wait  to  catch  the  unwary  insect. 

Plants,  nevertheless,  do  not  appear  to  have  the  smallest  basis  for 
sensation,  admitting  that  sensation  is  the  result  of  a  nervous  sys- 
tem ;  and  we  are  not  acquainted  with  any  other  source  from  which 
it  can  proceed.  Yet,. although  the  vessels  of  plants  do  not  appear 
to  possess  any  muscular  fibres,  we  have  evident  proofs  of  the  exist- 
ence of  a  contractile  and  irritable  power  from  some  other  princi- 
20 


230  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

pie  ;  and  the  facts  above  referred  to,  among  many  others  that  might 
be  adduced,  concur  in  making  it  highly  probable,  that  it  is  by  the 
exercise  of  such  a  principle  that  the  different  fluids  are  propelled 
through  their  respective  vessels.  There  is  no  other  method  by 
which  such  propulsion  can  be  reasonably  accounted  for. 

In  what  part  of  a  plant  the  vital  principle  chiefly  exists,  or  to 
\vhatquarterit  retires  during  the  winter,  we  know  not;  but  we 
are  just  as  ignorant  in  respect  to  animal  life.  In  both  it  operates 
towards  every  point ;  it  consists  in  the  whole,  and  resides  in  the 
whole;  and  its  proof  of  existence  is  drawn  from  ha  exercising  al- 
most every  one  of  its  functions,  and  effecting  its  combinations  in 
direct  opposition  to  the  laws  of  chemical  affinity,  which  would  oth- 
erwise as  much  control  it  as  they  control  the  mineral  world,  and 
which  constantly  assume  an  authority  as  soon  as  ever  the  vegeta- 
ble is  dead.  Hence,  the  plant  thrives  and  increases  in  its  bulk, 
puts  forth  annually  a  new  progeny  of  buds,  and  becomes  clothed 
with  a  beautiful  foliage  of  lungs  (every  leaf  being  a  distinct  lung 
in  itself),  for  the  respiration  of  the  rising  brood  ;  and  with  an  har- 
monious circle  of  action,  that  can  never  be  too  much  admired,  fur- 
nishes a  perpetual  supply  of  nutriment,  in  every  diversified  fornir 
for  the  growth  and  perfection  of  animal  life ;  while  it  receives  in 
rich  abundance,  from  the  waste  and  diminution,  and  even  decom- 
position of  the  same,  the  means  of  new  births,  new  buds,  and  new 
harvests. 

Frosts  and  suns,  water  and  air,  equally  promote  fructification  in 
their  respective  ways  ;  and  the  termes  or  white  ant,  the  mote,  the 
hampster,  and  the  earth-worm,  break  up  the  ground,  or  delve  into 
it,  that  they  may  enjoy  their  salubrious  influences.  In  like  manner, 
they  are  equally  the  ministers  of  putrefaction  and  decomposition  j 
and  liver-worts  and  fungusses,  the  ant  and  the  beetle,  the  dew- 
worm,  the  ship-worm,  and  the  wood-pecker,  contribute  to  the  gen- 
eral effect,  and  soon  reduce  the  trunks  of  the  stoutest  oaks,  if  lying 
waste  and  unemployed,  to  their  elementary  principles,  so  as  to 
form  a  productive  mould  for  successive  progenies  of  animal  or 
vegetable  existence.  Such  is  the  simple  but  beautiful  circle  of  na- 
ture. Every  thing  lives,  flourishes,  and  decays:  every  thing  dies, 
but  nothing  is  lost;  for  the  great  principle  of  life  only  changes  its 
form,  and  the  destruction  of  one  generation  is  the  vivification  of 
the  next.  Hence,  the  Hindu  mythologists,  with  a  force  and  ele- 
gance peculiarly  striking,  and  which  are  no  where  to  be  paralleled 
in  the  theogonies  of  Greece  and  Rome,  describe  the  Supreme  Be- 
ing, whom  they  denominate  Brahm,  as  forming  and  regulating  the 
universe  through  the  agency  of  a  triad  of  inferior  gods,  each  of 
whom  contributes  equally  to  the  general  result,  under  the  names  of 
Brahma,  Visnu,  and  Iswara;  or  the  generating  power,  the  preserv- 
ing or  consummating  power,  and  the  decomposing  power.  And 
hence  the  Christian  philosopher,  with  a  simplicity  as  much  more 
sublime  than  the  Hindu's  as  it  is  more  veracious,  exclaims,  on  con- 


BOTANY.  231 

templating  the  regular  confusion,  the  intricate  harmony  of  the 
scenes  that  rise  before  him : 

These,  ai  they  change,  Almighty  Father  !  these 
Are  but  the  varied  God;    The  rolling  year 
Iifullofthee. 

To  the  systematic  arrangements  of  Moses  and  Solomon  we  have 
already  adverted,  in  the  introductory  section  to  this  volume ;  we 
shall  here  merely  add,  in  the  words  of  Mr.  Charles  Taylor,  that  no 
clearer  proofs  of  system  can  be  produced  from  any  writer  whatev- 
er, than  are  exhibted  in  Gen.  i.  11, 12,  and  1  Kings  iv.  33.  There 
is  a  uniform  progress  from  a  lesser  to  a  larger ;  from  *  grass/  in- 
cluding the  minutest  species  of  whatever  is  green,  to  '  shrubs,7  which 
are  apparently  taken  for  trees  of  the  smaller  kinds ;  and  from  these 
to  '  trees,'  which  not  only  differ  by  their  enlarged  dimensions,  but 
by  their  permanency  also» 


CHAPTER  I 


GRASS  AND  HERBS. 

THE  general  term  for  herbaceous  productions,  in  the  Hebrew 
writings,  is  desha,  although  it  is  also  specifically  applied  to  grass  in 
particular.  The  corresponding  Greek  term  in  the  New  Testament 
is  chortos.  Wetstein  remarks,  that  the  Hebrews  divide  all  kinds  of 
vegetables  into  trees  and  herbs ;  the  former  of  which  the  Hellenists 
call  xylon,  the  latter  chortos,  under  \vhich  they  comprehend  grass, 
corn,  and  flowers.  In  Matt.  vi.  30,  and  Luke  xii.  28,  this  term  is 
certainly  designed  to  include  the  lilies  of  the  field,  of  which  our  Sa- 
viour had  just  been  speaking. 

There  is  great  impropriety  in  our  version  of  Proverbs  xxvii.  25: 
'  The  hay  appeareth,  and  the  tender  grass  showeth  itself,  and  herbs 
of  the  mountains  are  gathered.'  Certainly,  if  the  tender  grass  is  but 
just  beginning  to  show  itself,  the  hay,  which  is  grass  cut  and  dried, 
after  it  has  arrived  at  maturity,  ought  by  no  means  to  be  associated 
with  it ;  still  less  to  precede  it.  Upon  this  passage,  Mr.  Taylor  re- 
marks, that  none  of  the  Dictionaries  or  Lexicons  give  what  seems 
to  be  the  accurate  import  of  the  word  translated  hay,  which  betakes 
to  mean  the  first  shoots,  the  rising— just  budding — spires  of  grass. 
So  the  wise  man  says,  *  the  tender  risings  of  the  grass  are  in  motion ; 
and  the  buddings  of  grass  (grass  in  its  early  state)  appear;  and  the 
tufts  of  grass,  proceeding  from  the  same  root,  collect  themselves  to- 
gether, and,  by  their  union,  begin  to  clothe  the  mountain  tops  with 
a  pleasing  verdure.'  Surely,  the  beautiful  progress  of  vegetation, 
as  described  in  this  passage,  must  appear  to  every  man  of  taste  as 
too  poetical  to  be  lost ;  but  what  must  it  be  to  an  eastern  beholder 
— to  one  whose  imagination  is  exalted  by  a  poetic  spirit — one 
who  has  lately  witnessed  an  all-surrounding  sterility — a  grassless 
waste ! 

The  same  impropriety,  but  in  a  contrary  order,  and  where  per- 
haps the  English  reader  would  be  less  likely  to  detect  it,  occurs  in 
our  version  of  Isaiah  xv.  6,  *  For  the  waters  of  Nimrim  [water  is  a 
principal  source  of  vegetation]  shall  be  desolate — departed — DEAD; 
so  that  [the  'hay'  in  our  translation,  but  as  it  should  be]  the  tender 
— just  sprouting — risings  of  the  grass  are  withered — dried  up;  the 
buddings  of  the  grass  are  entirely  ruined,'  [*  there  is  no  green  thing,* 
in  our  version.]  The  following  verse  may  be  thus  translated  :  '  In- 
somuch, that  the  reserve  he  had  made,  and  the  deposit  he  had  placed 
with  great  care  in  supposed  security,  shall  all  be  driven  to  the  brook 
of  the  willows.' 


GRASS  AND  HERBS.  233 

A  similar  gradation  of  poetical  imagery  is  used  in  2  Kings  xix. 
26,  '  Their  inhabitants  were  of  shortened  hand ;  dismayed,  ashamed, 
they  were  as  grass  of  the  field,  vegetables  in  general,  as  the  green 
buddings  of  grass;  as  the  tender  risings  on  the  house  tops;  and 
those,  too,  struck  by  the  wind,  before  it  is  advanced  in  growth  to  a 
rising  up.'  What  a  climax  of  imbecility  ! 

Is  it  not  unhappy,  that  in  the  only  two  places  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment where  our  translators  have  used  the  word  hay,  it  should  be 
necessary  to  substitute  a  word  of  a  directly  contrary  meaning,  in 
order  to  accommodate  the  true  rendering  of  the  passages  to  the  na- 
tive (eastern)  ideas  of  their  authors? 


20* 


SECTION   I. 


GRAIN. 

THE  generic  name  for  grain,  in  the  Old  Testament  writings,  is 
dagen,  corn  ;  so  named  from  its  abundant  increase.  In  Gen.  xxvi. 
12,  and  Matt.  xiii.  8,  grain  is  spoken  of  as  yielding  a  hundred  fold ; 
and  to  the  ancient  fertility  of  Palestine  all  authorities  bear  testimony. 
Burckhardt  states,  that  in  some  parts  of  the  Haouran,  a  tract  of 
country  on  the  east  of  the  river  Jordan,  he  found  the  barley  to  yield 
eighty  fold,  even  in  the  present  neglected  state  of  the  country. 

It  is  evident  from  Ruth  ii.  14,  2  Sam.  xvii.  28,  29,  and  other  pas- 
sages, that  parched  corn  constituted  part  of  the  ordinary  food  of  the 
Israelites,  as  it  still  does  of  the  Arabs.  Their  methods  of  preparing 
corn  for  the  manufacture  of  bread  were  the  following.  The  thrash- 
ing was  done  either  by  the  staff' or  the  flail,  (Isa.  xxviii.  27,  28) — by 
the  feet  of  cattle  (Dent.  xxv.  4) — or  by  'a  sharp  thrashing  instru- 
ment having  teeth'  (Isa.  xli.  15),  which  was  something  resembling 
a  cart,  and  drawn  over  the  corn  by  means  of  horses  or  oxen. 
When  the  corn  was  thrashed,  it  was  separated  from  the  chaff  and 
dust,  by  throwing  it  forward  across  the  wind,  by  means  of  a  win- 
nowing fan,  or  shovel  (Matt.  iii.  12) ;  after  which  the  grain  was  sift- 
ed to  separate  all  impurities  from  it,  Amos  ix.  9;  Luke  xxii.  31. 
Hence  the  thrashing  floors  were  in  the  open  air,  Judg.  vi.  11;  2 
Sam.  xxiv.  IS.  The  grain  thus  obtained  was  commonly  reduced 
to  meal  by  the  hand-mill,  which  consisted  of  a  lower  mill-stone,  the 
upper  side  of  which  was  concave,  and  an  upper  mill-stone,  the  low- 
er surface  of  which  was  convex.  The  hole  for  receiving  the  corn 
was  in  the  centre  of  the  upper  mill-stone,  and  in  the  operation  of 
grinding,  the  lower  was  fixed,  and  the  upper  made  to  move  round 
upon  h,  with  considerable  velocity,  by  means  of  a  handle.  These 
mills  are  still  in  use  in  the  East,  and  in  some  parts  of  Scotland, 
where  they  are  called  querns.  The  employment  of  grinding  with 
these  mills  is  confined  solely  to  females ;  and  the  practice  illustrates 
the  prophetic  observation  of  our  Saviour,  concerning  the  day  of 
Jerusalem's  destruction  ;  « Two  women  shall  be  grinding  at  the 
mill :  one  shall  be  taken,  and  the  other  shall  be  left,'  Matt.  xxiv.  41. 
Mr.  Pennant,  who  has  given  a  particular  account  of  these  hand- 
mills,  as  used  in  Scotland,  observes,  that  the  women  always  accom- 
pany the  grating  noise  of  the  stones  with  their  voices ;  and  that 
when  ten  or  a  dozen  are  thus  employed,  the  fury  of  the  song  rises 
to  such  a  pitch,  that  you  would,  without  breach  of  charity,  imagine 
a  troop  of  female  demoniacs  to  be  assembled.  As  the  operation  of 


GRAIN.  235 

grinding  was  usually  performed  in  the  morning  at  day-break,  the 
sound  of  the  females  at  the  hand-mill  was  heard  all  over  the  city, 
which  often  awoke  their  more  indolent  masters.  The  Scriptures 


mention  the  want  of  this  noise  as  a  mark  of  desolation  in  Jer.  XXY, 
10,  and  Rev.  xviii.  22.  There  was  a  humane  law,  that  'no  man 
shall  take  the  nether  or  upper  mill-stone  in  pledge,  ibr  he  taketh  a 
man's  life  in  pledge,'  Deut.  xxiv.  6. — He  could  not  grind  his  daily 
bread  without  it. 

The  late  editor  of  Calmet  has  some  valuable  remarks  upon  the 
adoption  of  grain  as  a  symbol  of  a  future  state  :  we  need  no  apology 
for  offering  the  result  of  his  inquiries  to  our  readers. 

The  close  of  life  at  mature  age  is  compared  to  a  shock  of  corn 
fully  ripe:  'Thou  shalt  come  to  thy  grave  in  a  full  nge,  like  as  a 
shock  of  corn  cometh  in  (to  the  garner)  in  its  season,'  Job  v.  26. 
See  also  Gen.  xxv.  8,  and  Job  xlii.  17. 

Our  Lord  compares  himsulf  to  a  corn  of  wheat  falling  into  the 
ground,  but  afterwards  producing  much  fruit  (John  xii.  24);  and 
the  prophet  Hosea  (xiv.  7,)  speaks  of  'growing  as  the  vine,  and  re- 
viving as  the  corn.'  In  fact,  the  return  of  vegetation,  in  the  spring 
of  the  year,  has  been  adopted  very  generally,  as  an  expressive  sym- 
bol of  a  resurrection.  The  apostle  Paul  uses  this  very  simile,  in 
reference  to  a  renewed  life ;  '  The  sower  sows  a  bare — naked — 
grain  of  corn,  of  whatever  kind  it  be,  as  wheat,  or  some  other 
grain,  but  after  a  proper  time  it  rises  to  light,  clothed  with  verdure  ; 
clothed  also  with  a  husk  and  other  appurtenances,  according  to  the 
nature  which  God  has  appointed  to  that  species  of  seed ;  analo- 
gous to  this  is  the  resurrection  of  the  body,'  &c.  1  Cor.  xv.  37.  Now 
if  this  comparison  were  in  use  among  the  ancients,  (and  a  gem  of 
Mountfagon  delares  its  antiquity)  it  could  hardly  be  unknown  to 
the  Corinthians,  in  their  learned  and  polite  city,  the  'Eye  of 


236  SCRIPTURE   NATURAL  HISTORY. 

Greece;'  neither  could  it  well  be  confined  to  the  philosophers 
there,  but  must  have  been  known  by  those  to  whom  the  apostle 
wrote  generally.  If  so,  then  not  only  was  the  sacred  writer  justified 
in  selecting  it  by  way  of  illustration,  but  he  had  more  reason  than 
modern  inconsiderates  have  supposed  for  calling  them  'fools'  who 
did  not  properly  reflect  on  what  was  acknowledged  and  admitted 
among  themselves. 

There  is  a  very  sudden  turn  of  metaphor  used  by  the  apostle 
Paul,  in  Romans  vi.  3—5;  'Know  ye  not  that  so  many  of  us  as 
were  baptized  into  Jesus  Christ,  were  baptized  into  his  death  ? 
therefore  v\e  are  buried  with  him  by  baptism  into  death— that  we 
should  walk  in  newness  of  life.  For  if  we  have  been  planted  to- 
gether [with  him]  in  the  likeness  of  his  death,  we  shall  be  also 
planted  in  the  likeness  of  his  resurection.'  But  what  has  baptism 
to  do  with  planting?  Wherein  consists  their  similarity,  so  as  to 
justify  the  resemblance  here  implied  ?  In  1  Peter  iii.  21,  we  find 
the  apostle  speaking  of  baptism,  figuratively,  as 'saving  us  ;'  and 
alluding  to  Noah,  who  long  lay  buried  in  the  Ark,,  as  corn  long 
lies  buried  in  the  earth.  Now,  as  after  having  died  to  his  former 
course,  of  life,  in  being  baptized,  a  convert  was  considered  as  rising 
to  a  renewed  life,  so  after  having  been  separated  from  his  former 
connexions,  his  seed-bed  as  it  were,  after  having  died  in  being 
planted,  he  was  considered  as  rising  to  a  renewed  life,  also.  The 
ideas  therefore  conveyed  by  the  apostle  in  these  verses  are  pre- 
cisely the  same  ;  though  the  metaphors  are  different.  Moreover, 
if  it  were  anciently  common  to  speak  of  a  person,  after  baptism, 
as  rising  to  a  renewed  life,  and  to  consider  corn  also  as  sprouting  to 
a  renewed  life,  then  we  see  how  easily  Hymeneus  and  Philetus  (2 
Tim.  ii.  17,  18,)  'concerning  the  truth  might  err,  saying,  that  the 
resurrection  was  past  already,'  in  baptism,  [quasi  in  planting — that 
is,  in  being  transferred  to  Christianity]  in  which  error  they  did  lit- 
tle more  than  annex  their  old  heathen'notions  to  the  Christian  insti- 
tution. The  transition  was  extremely  easy ;  but  unless  checked  in 
time,  the  error  might  have  become  very  dangerous. 


WHEAT.  337 


WHEAT. 


THIS  is  the  principal  and  most  valuable  of  all  kinds  of  grain.  It 
is  called  in  Hebrew  chetah,  a  word  the  etymology  of  which  it  is  not 
easy  to  ascertain.  In  2  Samuel  xvii.  28,  the  word  occurs  in  a  plu- 
ral form,  whence  Scheuchzer  infers,  that  it  comprehended,  ancient- 
ly, all  sorts  of  wheaten  corn  cleansed  from  impurities.  This,  how- 
ever, seems  doubtful,  because  barley  is  expressly  mentioned  in  con- 
nexion with  it:  it  refers  perhaps  to  several  kinds  of  wheat ;  or  what 
is  more  probable,  is  a  specimen  of  tb«t  lax  mode  of  expression 
which  is  so  common,  and  indeed  necessary,  in  all  languages. 

The  meat-offerings,  as  they  are  called  in  the  English  Bible,  of  the 
Levitical  dispensation,  were  not  what  their  designation  would  seem 
to  imply ;  animal  flesh,  but  wheat,  either  in  its  simple  state,  or  re- 
duced to  flour,  or  made  up  into  cakes.  See  Lev.  ch.  ii. 

The  wheat  (her)  of  Jer.  xxiii.  28,  Joel  ii.  24,  and  Amos  v.  11,  is 
no  doubt  the  burr  or  wild  corn  of  the  Arabs,  mentioned  by  ForsfcaJ, 
Jn  Gen.  xJi,  35,  the  same  word  is  rendered  corn, 


238  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 


BARLEY. 

THIS  well  known  grain  derives  its  Hebrew  name  shoreh,  from 
the  long  hairy  beard  which  grows  upon  its  ear. 

In  Palestine,  the  barley  was  sown  in  the  month  of  October,  and 
reaped  in  the  end  of  March,  just  after  the  passover.  In  Egypt,  at 
the  time  of  the  seventh  plague  (Exod.  ix.  13),  which  happened  a 
few  days  before  the  passover,  the  barley  was  in  the  green  ear,  from 
which  it  seems  that  the  harvest  was  later  there  than  in  the  land  of 
Canaan. 

In  1  Kings  iv,  28,  barley  is  spoken  of  as  the  usual  food  for  horses,, 
and  so  it  still  continue^  to  be  in  Syria. 

Pliny  states  barley  to  have  been  the  most  ancient  aliment  of 
mankind,  and  it  is  evident  from  several  passages  of  scripture,  that 
it  was  used  for  the  making  of  bread  among  the  Jewish  people.  See 
2  Sam.  xvii.  28  ;  2  Kings  iv.  22 ;  2  Chron.  ii.  15 ;  John  vi.  8—10,, 
&c. 


RYE. 

THIS  species  of  corn  is  called  cesmeth,  probably  from  its  longhair 
or  beard.  Dr.  Shaw  supposes  that  rice  is  the  grain  intended  by 
the  original.  On  the  other  hand,  Hasselquist  states  that  the  Egyp- 
tians learned  the  cultivation '  of  rice  under  the  Caliphs ;  and  Park- 
hurst  has  shown  that  the  traveller  has  misunderstood  the  statement 
of  the  Roman  naturalist.  In  Ezek.  iv.  9,  the  Hebrew  word  is  r.en.- 
dered^/c/ies,  a  kind  of  tare. 


MILLET. 

THE  Hebrew  name  of  this  grain  is  dechen,  from  a  root  which  sig- 
nifies to  thrust  forth,  impel,  &c. ;  and  it  is  so  called,  perhaps,  from 
its  thrusting  forth  such  a  quantity  of  grains,  above  every  other 
known  plant.  Thus,  in  Latin  it  is  called  milium,  as  if  one  stalk 
bore  a  thousand  grains.  It  is  no  doubt  the  same  kind  of  grain  as  is 
now  called  in  the  East  durra,  which  is  a  kind  of  millet,  and  when 
made  into  bad  bread,  with  camel's  milk,  oil,  butter,  or  grease,  is  al- 
most the  only  food  which  is  eaten  by  the  common  people  in  Ara- 
bia Felix.  Niebuhr  found  it  so  disagreeable,  he  states,  that  he 
would  willingly  have  preferred  to  it  plain  barley-bread.  This  re~ 
mark  tends  to  illustrate  Ezekiel  iv.  9, 


SECTION    II. 


REEDS. 

ON  the  banks  and  in  the  streams  of  the  Nile  reeds  grow  in  im- 
mense quantities,  and  hence  it  is,  probably,  that  in  2  Kings  xviii.- 
21,  the  country  of  Egypt  is  called  a  reed:  'Now,  behold,  thoa 
trusted)  upon  the  staff  of  this  bruised  reed,  even  upon  Egypt,  on 
which  if  a  man  lean,  it  will  go  into  his  hand  and  pierce  it:  so  is- 
Pharaoh  king  of  Egypt  unto  all  that  trust  on  him.'  The  prophet 
Ezekiel  attests  the  fidelity  of  the  Assyrian  general's  representation : 
*  And  all  the  inhabitants  of  Egypt  shall  know  that  I  am  the  Lord, 
because  they  have  been  a  staff  of  reed  to  the  house  of  Israel.  When 
they  all  took  hold  of  thee  by  thy  hand,  thou  didst  break  and  rend 
their  shoulder:  and  when  they  leaned  upon  thee,  thou  breakest 
and  madest  all  their  loins  to  be  at  a  stand,'  ch.  ix.  6,  7.  Hence  we 
see  what  is  meant  by  a  bruised  reed,  in  Isa.  xlii.  3,  and  from  its- 
reference  to  the  church,  we  must  understand  it  of  a  weak  believer,, 
or  perhaps,  more  particularly,  of  one  whose  heart  is  broken  and 
contrite,  for  past  offences. 

In  1  Kings  xiv.  15,  the  transgressions  of  Israel  call  forth  the  fol- 
lowing denunciation  of  punishment :  '  The  Lord  shall  smite  Israel 
as  a  reed  shaken  in  the  water,  and  he  shall  root  up  Israel  out  of  the 
good  land  which  he  gave  to  their  fathers,  and  shall  scatter  them  be- 
yond the  river,  because  they  have  made  their  idol  groves,  provok- 
ing him  to  anger.'  There  is  the  same  allusion  in  Matt.  xi.  7,  where 
our  Saviour  says  of  John  the  Baptist,  that  he  was  not  a  reed  shaken 
with  the  wind.  There  was  nothing  vacillating  or  unstable  in  his 
character :  his  mind  was  constant,  and  fixed  on  the  truth  ;  and  his 
testimony  to  the  character  of  the  Saviour  was  always  the  same. 

From  Ezek.  xl.  3,  and  Rev.  xi.  1,  we  learn  that  the  long  stalk  of 
the  reed  was  used  as  a  measuring-rod  ;  and  from  Isaiah  xlvi.  6,  it 
seems  to  have  been  employed  as  a  balance,  perhaps  after  the  same, 
manner  as  the  Roman  steel-yard. 

In  the  neighborhood  of  Suez  some  of  these  reeds  grow  to  the? 
height  of  twelve  yards ;  hence  we  see  how  easily,  by  means  of  one- 
of  them,  the  soldier  who  stood  at  the  foot  of  our  Saviour's  cross,, 
«ould  raise  to  his  mouth  a  sponge  filled  with  vinegar,  Matt,  xxvii.  48.. 

We  must  not  omit  to  notice  the  appropriation  of  reeds  to  the 
purposes  of  writing,  before  the  invention  of  our  common  pens>  as 
there  are  several  allusions  to  them  in  the  sacred  writings,  although 
not  discernible  in  the  English  Bible. 


240  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 


THE  BULRUSH,  OR  PAPYRUS. 

THE  bulrush  grows  in  the  marshes  of  Egypt,  or  in  the  stagnant 
places  of  the  Nile,  made  by  the  flowing  of  the  river,  where  they 
are  not  above  the  depth  of  two  cubits.  Its  roots  are  tortuous,  and 
in  thickness  about  four  or  five  inches  ;  its  stem  is  triangular,  rising 
to  the  height  often  cubits,  and  terminating  in  a  crown  of  small  fil- 
aments resembling  hair,  which  the  ancients  used  to  compare  to  a 
thyrsus. 

The  papyri  were  produced  in  such  great  quantities  on  the  banks 
of  the  Nile,  that  Cassiodorus  compares  them  to  a  forest.  *  There 
rises  to  the  view  this  forest  without  branches,  this  thicket  with- 
out leaves,  this  harvest  of  the  waters,  this  ornament  of  the  marshes.' 
This  reed  was  of  the  greatest  use  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  coun- 
try where  it  grew ;  the  pith  contained  in  the  stalk  served  them  for 
food,  and  the  woody  part  for  the  construction  of  vessels.  For  this 
purpose  they  made  it  up,  like  rushes,  into  bundles,  and  by  tying 
these  together,  they  gave  to  their  vessels  the  necessary  shape  and 
solidity.  The  vessels  of  bulrushes  (Isa.  xviii.  2,)  or  papyri,  men- 
tioned in  sacred  and  profane  history,  says  Dr.  Shaw,  were  no  other 
than  large  fabrics  of  the  same  kind  with  that  of  Moses  (Exodus  ii. 
3,)  which  from  a  late  introduction  of  plank  and  stronger  materials, 
are  now  laid  aside.  Thus,  Pliny  notices  'ships  made  of  papyrus 
and  the  equipments  of  the  Nile  ;'  and  in  another  place  he  says,  *  Of 
the  papyrus  itself  they  construct  sailing  vessels.' 

The  most  useful  and  valuable  part  of  the  papyrus,  however,  was 
its  delicate  rind  or  bark,  which  was  used  for  the  purpose  of  writ- 
ing upon.  To  prepare  it  for  this,  the  several  coatings  of  which  the 
stem  is  composed  were  carefully  separated  and  spread  out  upon  a 
table,  artfully  matched  and  pressed  together,  and  moistened  with 
the  water  of  the  Nile,  which,  dissolving  the  glutinous  juices  of  the 
plant,  caused  them  to  adhere  closely  together.  They  were  after- 
wards pressed,  and  then  dried  in  the  sun  ;  and  thus  were  rendered 
fit  for  writing  upon,  in  characters  marked  by  a  colored  liquid  pass- 
ing through  a  hollow  reed. 

These  vegetables  require  much  water  for  their  growth  j  when, 
therefore,  the  river  on  whose  banks  they  grow,  is  reduced,  they  per- 
ish sooner  than  other  plants.  This  explains  Job  viii.  11,  where  the 
circumstance  is  referred  to  as  an  image  of  transient  prosperity  : 
*  Can  the  paper  reed  grow  up  without  ooze?  Can  the  bulrush  grow 
up  without  water.' 

The  papyrus  being  an  esculent  plant,  there  was  nothing  extraor- 
dinary in  its  being  eaten,  as  intimated  in  Jeremiah  xv.  16  ;  Ezekiel 
iii.  1 ;  and  Revelation  x.  10. 


THE  CANE.  242 


THE    CANE. 

THE  Calamus  Aromaticus,  or  sweet-scented  cane,  grows  in  Egypt, 
in  Judea,  and  in  several  parts  of  Syria,  but  the  best  kind  is  found 
in  Arabia  and  India.  It  was  probably  among  the  number  of  those 
plants  that  the  Queen  of  Sheba  presented  to  Solomon.  So  power- 
ful is  its  fragrance,  that  the  air  is  said  to  be  filled  with  a  strong  aro- 
matic smell,  even  while  it  is  growing  (see  Cant.  iv.  13,  14) ;  and 
when  dried  and  reduced  to  powder,  it  forms  an  ingredient  in  the 
richest  perfumes.  It  was  used  for  this  purpose  by  the  Jews,  Exo- 
dus xxx.  23  ;  Isaiah  xliii.  24. 

Jeremiah  (ch.  vi.  20),  speaks  of  the  *  rich  aromatic  reed,'  as  com- 
ing from  a  *  far  country,'  whence  it  would  hardly  have  been  fetched, 
could  it  have  been  procured  near  home.  It  is  most  probable,  as 
Dr.  Harris  suggests,  that  this  reed,  as  well  as  the  frankincense  spok- 
en of  in  connexion  with  it,  came  to  them  from  Saba,  where  it 
grew.  Saba,  we  know,  was  situated  towards  the  southern  peninsu- 
la of  Arabia  ;  so  that  it  was,  indeed,  witli  respect  to  Judea,  *  a  far 
country,'  as  it  also  is  said  to  be  in  Joel  iii.  8.  And  our  Saviour, 
speaking  of  its  queen,  whom  he  calls '  the  queen  of  the  south,'  says 
that  she  came  *  from  the  extreme  parts  of  the  earth,'  Matthew  xii. 
42.  In  the  book  of  Exodus,  also,  the  calamus  is  said  to  come  from 
*  a  far  country.' 


THE     FLAG. 

THERE  are  two  words  in  the  Hebrew,  sometimes  translated 
*  flag,'  in  our  Bibles;  though  in  Genesis  xli.  2,  18,  the  one  is  ren- 
dered meadow,  and  in  Jonah  ii.  5,  the  other,  *  weeds.'  It  probably 
denotes  the  sedge  or  long  grass,  which  grows  in  the  meadows  of 
the  Nile. 


21 


SECTION  III. 


PULSE. 

THE  term  Pulse  is  applied  to  leguminous  plants,  or  those  grains 
or  seeds  that  grow  in  pods.  In  2  Samuel  xvii.  28,  the  word  occurs 
twice  ;  once  being  joined  with  barley  and  meal,  it  is  rightly  explain- 
ed in  our  translation  by  *  parched  corn  ;'  in  the  other  case,  following 
beans  and  lentils,  it  is  properly  understood  of  'parched  pulse.' 
Both  these  still  make  part  of  the  food  of  the  eastern  people. 
'Roasted  ears  of  wheat,'  'are  an  ancient  dish  in  the  east,'  of  which 
mention  is  made  in  the  Book  of  Ruth,  i.  22.  As  to  the  parched 
pulse  of  2  Sam.  xvii.  28,  Dr.  Shaw  informs  us,  that  the  cicer  or  chick 
peas,  are  in  the  greatest  repute  after  they  are  parched  in  pans  or 
ovens,  then  assuming  the  name  ofteblebby.  This,  he  adds,  seems 
to  be  of  the  greatest  antiquity  ;  for  PJaiitus  speaks  of  it  as  a  thing 
very  common  in  his  time.  The  leblebby  of  those  times  may  proba- 
bly be  the  ' parched  pulse,'  of  the  holy  Scriptures. 


LENTILS. 

THESE  are  a  sort  of  pulse  which  grow  plentifully  in  Egypt,  and 
are  much  used  as  food.  They  were  little  esteemed  by  the  Romans, 
who  ranked  them  below  that  species  of  grain  from  which  they 
made  a  kind  of  beer,  the  alica.  But  Dr.  Shaw  states,  that  in  Bar- 
bary,  they  form,  nexf  to  beans,  a  part  of  the  principal  food  of  the 
inhabitants.  They  are  dressed  in  the  same  manner  with  beans, 
that  is,  boiled  mul  shewed  with  oil  and  garlic,  dissolving  easily  in- 
to a  mass,  and  making  a  pottage  of  a  chocolate  color.  This,  was 
perhaps  the  'red  pott;ige,'  which  Esau,  from  thence  called  Edom, 
exchanged  for  his  birth-right,  Gen.  xxv.  30,  34. 


BEANS. 

BEANS  are  enumerated  among  the  provisions  brought  to  David 
at  Mahanaim  (2  Samuel  xvii.  28),  and  also  among  the  ingredients 
with  which  the  prophet  Ezekiel  was  to  make  his  bread,  ch.  iv.  9. 
These  passages  may  be  illustrated  by  what  Dr.  Shaw  says  about 
the  modern  diet  of  the  people  of  Barbary  :  'Beans,  after  they  are 
boiled  and  stewed  with  garlick.  are  the  principal  food  of  persons  of 
all  distinctions.' 


SECTION  IV. 


WEEDS. 

IN  Jonah  ii.  6,  the  Hebrew  word  suph  is  translated  weeds,  and  it 
is  the  only  passage  in  the  English  Bible  in  which  it  is  so  rendered. 
Parkhurst  says,  as  a  collective  noun,  it  means  plants  or  weeds  which 
grow  on  the  border  of  a  river  or  sea,  and  are  continually  swept  or 
brushed  by  the  waves.  Plants  of  this  description  certainly  well 
agree  with  the  passage  in  Jonah. 


COCKLE. 

THE  Hebrew  word,  which  we  render  cockle,  occurs  only  in 
Job  xxxi.  40,  and  is  variously  translated  by  the  versions.  In 
Isaiah  v.  2,  4,  the  prophet  mentions  a  plant  or  a  fruit  under  a  very 
similarname,  but  in  the  English  version  *  wild  grapes.'  Michaelis 
maintains,  that  both  words  denote  the  aconite,  a  poisonous  plant, 
growing  spontaneously  and  luxuriantly  on  sunny  hills,  such  as  are 
used  for  vineyards. 


FITCHES. 

THERE  are  two  words  in  the  Hebrew  Bible  which  the  English 
translators  have  rendered  fitches  or  vetches,  a  kind  of  tare  com- 
monly cultivated  in  England  as  food  for  animals : — much  differ- 
ence of  opinion  exists  as  to  the  plant  intended  where  the  word 
'fitches '  occurs.  If  it  be  the  same  as  we  call  vetches,  it  cer- 
tainly has  its  place  among  leguminous  or  pod-bearing  plants ; — 
but,  on  the  whole,  there  appears  a  greater  probability  that  the 
nigella,  or  some  similar  plant  bearing  seeds  of  an  aromatic  fla- 
vor, is  intended.  Ausonius  says,  the  gith  is  '  pungent  as  pepper ;' 
and  Pliny  adds,  that  its  seed  is  good  for  seasoning  food.  He  also 
states  it  to  be  of  great  use  in  the  bake-house,  and  that  it  affords  a 


244  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

grateful  seasoning  to  bread ;  perhaps  by  sprinkling  it  upon  it,  as 
we  do  caraway  and  other  small  seeds. 

Mr.  Parkhurst  thinks  the  gith  to  have  been  the  same  as  our  fen- 
nel ;  and  he  quotes  Ballester,  who  says,  *  gith  is  commonly  met  with 
in  gardens;  it  grows  a  cubit  in  height,  sometimes  more.  The 
leaves  are  small,  like  those  of  fennel,  the  flower  blue,  which,  disap- 
pearing, the  ovary  shows  itself  on  the  top,  like  those  of  a  poppy, 
furnished  with  little  horns,  oblong,  divided  by  membranes  into 
several  partitions  and  cells,  in  which  are  inclosed  seeds  of  a  very 
black  color,  not  unlike  those  of  a  leek,  but  very  fragrant.'  But,  as 
Mr.  Taylor  justly  suggests,  the  circumstance  of  Ballester  comparing 
the  gitU  to  the  fennel  is  decisive  against  the  notion  of  Parkhurst, 
that  it  was  this  particular  plant.  That  it  classes  with  the  fennel 
may  be  readily  admitted ;  but  not  that  it  is  the  same. 


CHAPTER  II. 


PLANTS   AND    SHRUBS. 

IN  this  chapter  the  reader  will  find  some  things  which  he  will 
probably  think  ought  to  have  been  placed  in  the  former  one,  in 
accordance  with  the  remarks  which  were  offered  on  the  Mosaie 
distribution  of  the  vegetable  kingdom.  But  the  difficulty  of  adopt- 
ing such  a  classification  as  would  have  included  them  under  that 
division,  must  plead  our  apology  for  departing  from  the  order 
which  it  was  natural  to  expect  would  be  followed  in  this  part  of  the 
work. 


SECTION  I. 
AROMATIC   PLANTS. 


CAMPHOR. 

THIS  shrub  was  formerly  considered  as  a  species  of  privet,  to 
which  it  has,  indeed,  many  relations ;  but  difference  in  the  parts  of 
fructification  has  determined  botanists  to  make  a  distinct  genus  of 
it,  to  which  Linneus  has  given  the  name  of  lawsonia,  and  to  that 
species  we  are  describing,  lawsonia  inermis.  Its  Arabic  name  is 
henna;  and  with  the  article,  al-henna. 

The  al-henna  is  mentioned  in  Cant.  i.  14,  and  iv.  13,  as  a  per- 
fume ;  in  the  former  passage  notice  is  taken  of  its  clusters.  Dr. 
Shaw  describes  it  as  a  beautiful  odoriferous  plant,  which  grows  ten 
or  twelve  feet  high,  putting  out  its  little  flowers  in  clusters,  which 
yield  a  most  grateful  smell,  like  camphor.  But  the  fullest  descrip- 
tion of  the  al-henna  is  that  furnished  by  Sonnini,  from  whom  we 
make  the  following  extracts. 

*  The  henna  is  a  tall  shrub,  endlessly  multiplied  in  Egypt ;  the 
leaves  are  of  a  lengthened  oval  form,  opposed  to  each  other,  and  of 
a  faint  green  color.  The  flowers  grow  at  the  extremity  of  the 
branches,  in  long  and  tufted  boquets;  the  smaller  ramifications 
which  support  them  are  red,  and  likewise  opposite ;  from  the  arm- 
pit cavity  springs  a  small  leaf  almost  round,  but  terminating  in  a 
point ;  the  corolla  is  formed  of  four  petals,  curling  up,  and  of  a  light 
yellow.  Between  each  petal  are  two  white  stamina  with  a  yellow 
summit;  there  is  only  one  white  pistil.  The  pedicle,  reddish  at  its 
issuing  from  the  bough,  dies  away  into  a  faint  green.  The  calix  is 
cut  into  four  pieces,  of  a  tender  green  up  toward  their  extremity, 
which  is  reddish.  The  fruit  or  berry  is  a  green  capsule,  previous 
to  its  maturity ;  it  assumes  a  red  tint  as  it  ripens,  and  becomes 
brown  when  it  is  dried ;  it  is  divided  into  four  compartments,  in 
which  are  enclosed  the  seeds,  triangular  and  brown-colored.  The 
bark  of  the  stem  and  of  the  branches  is  of  a  deep  grey,  and  the 
wood  has,  internally,  a  light  cast  of  yellow.  Though  its  figure  has 
been  already  published  in  several  books  on  natural  history,  it  has 
not  been  faithfully  represented  in  any  one,  or  with  such  exactness 
of  detail,  as  in  the  drawing  which  I  had  taken  of  it  at  Rosettn. 

4  In  truth,  this  is  one  of  the  plants  the  most  grateful  to  both  the 
sight  and  the  smell.  The  gently  deepish  color  of  its  bark,  the  light 
green  of  its  foliage,  the  softened  mixture  of  white  and  yellow  with 
which  the  flowers,  collected  into  long  clusters  like  the  lilach,  are 


THE  MYRTLE.  247 

colored,  the  red  tint  of  the  ramifications  which  support  them,  form 
a  combination  of  the  most  agreeable  effect.  These  flowersr  whose 
shades  are  so  delicate,  diffuse  around  the  sweetest  odors,  and  em- 
balm the  gardens  and  the  apartments  which  they  embellish ;  they 
accordingly  form  the  nosegay  of  beauty  ;  the- women — ornaments  of 
the  prisons  of  jealousy,  whereas  they  might  be  that  of  a  whole 
country — take  pleasure  to  deck  themselves  with  these  beautiful 
clusters  of  fragrance,  to  adorn  their  apartments  with  them,  to  carry 
them  to  the  bath,  to  hold  them  in  their  hand :  in  a  word,  to  perfume 
their  bosom  with  them.  They  attach  to  this  possession,  which  the 
mildness  of  the  climate,  and  the  facility  of  culture,  seldom  refuse 
them,  a  value  so  high,  that  they  would  willingly  appropriate  it  ex- 
clusively to  themselves ;  and  they  suffer  with  impatience  Christian 
women  and  Jewesses  to  partake  of  it  with  them.' 


ALOES. 

THIS  is  an  extensive  tribe  of  plants,  ihe  principal  species  amount- 
ing to  nine  in  number:  they  differ  much  in  size. 

From  this  plant  is  extracted  the  drug  called  aloes,  which  is  a  ve- 
ry bitter  liquor,  used  in  embalming,  to  prevent  putrefaction.  Nic- 
odemus  brought  abont  a  hundred  pounds  weight  of  myrrh  and  aloes, 
to  embalm  the  body  of  our  Saviour,  John  xix.  39. 


THE     MYRTLE. 

IN  our  ungenial  climate,  the  myrtle  is  a  lowly  shrub ;  but  in  oth- 
er and  more  favorable  countries, it  sometimes  grows  to  a  small  tree. 
It  is  a  hard  woody  root,  that  sends  forth  a  great  number  of  small 
flexible  branches,  furnished  with  leaves  like  those  of  box,  but  much 
smaller,  and  more  pointed:  they  are  soft  to  the  touch,  shining, 
smooth,  of  a  beautiful  green,  and  have  a  smell.  The  flowers  grow 
among  the  leaves,  and  consist  of  five  white  petals,  disposed  in  the 
form  of  a  rose  :  they  have  an  agreeable  perfume,  and  an  ornament- 
al appearance.  They  are  succeeded  by  an  oval,  oblong  berry, 
adorned  with  a  sort  of  crown,  made  up  of  the  segments  of  the  calix: 
these  are  divided  into  three  cells,  containing  the  seeds. 

The  myrtle  is,  in  scripture,  sometimes  classed  with  large  trees,  as 
the  cedar  and  the  olive,  compared  with  which  it  is,  in  point  of  size, 
very  inconsiderable.  But  the  seeming  impropriety  vanishes,  when 
it  is  considered  that  the  prophet  intends  to  describe  a  scene  of  va- 


248  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

ried  excellence  and  beauty :  « I  will  plant  in  the  wilderness,  the  ce- 
dar and  the  shittah  tree,  and  the  myrtle,  and  the  oil  tree  '  (Isaiah  xli. 
29);  that  is,  says  Paxton,  'I  will  adorn  the  dreary  and  barren  wil- 
derness with  trees  famed  for  their  stature,  and  the  grandeur  of  their 
appearance ;  the  beauty  of  their  form,  and  the  fragrance  of  their 
odor.'  Again :  *  Instead  of  the  thorn  shall  come  up  the  myrtle  tree ; 
and  it  shall  be  to  the  Lord  for  a  name,  for  an  everlasting  sign,  that 
shall  not  be  cut  off,'  Isaiah  Iv.  13. 

These  quotations,  continues  the  writer  just  quoted,  refer  to  the 
effect  of  the  gospel,  or  the  reign  of  Christ,  on  the  state  of  the  world, 
and  the  dispositions  of  mankind.  They  foretel  the  production  of  a 
moral  paradise,  by  the  creative  power  of  Jehovah,  where  nothing 
but  sin  and  misery  reigned  before.  The  prophet  Zechuiiah  chooses 
the  myrtle  to  express  the  beauty,  and  utility,  and  low  condition  of 
the  church  :  ( A  man,  seated  on  a  red  horse,  was  seen  among  the 
myrtle  trees  which  were  in  the  bottom  of  some  valley,'  chap.  i.  18. 
This  visionary  scene,  while  it  presents  a  just  idea  of  the  lowly  and 
depressed  state  of  the  church,  and .  suggests  many  pleasing  reflec- 
tions concerning  her  preservation  and  security  under  the  protection 
of  her  Saviour,  agrees  with  the  aspect  of  nature  in  the  East,  where 
the  groves  of  myrtle  are  so  frequently  to  be  seen  rising  to  a  consid- 
erable height,  although  not  so  high  as  to  conceal  a  man  on  horse- 
back, especially  from  one  advantageously  placed  on  a  rising  ground, 
as  the  prophet  in  vision  seems  to  have  been. 

The  aspect  of  nature,  to  which  these  scriptures  refer,  is  beautifully 
displayed  by  the  glowing  pen  of  Savary,  in  his  Letters  on  Greece. 
Describing  a  scene  at  the  end  of  the  forest  of  Flatanen,  he  says, 
1  Myrtles,  intermixed  witli  laurel  roses,  grow  in  the  valleys,  to  the 
height  often  feet.  Their  snow-white  flowers,  bordered  within  with 
a  purple  edging,  appear  to  peculiar  advantage  under  the  verdant 
foliage.  Each  myrtle  is  loaded  with  them,  and  they  emit  perfumes 
more  exquisite  than  those  of  the  rose  itself:  they  enchant  every 
one,  and  the  soul  is  filled  with  the  softest  sensations.' 

The  original  Jewish  name  of  Esther  is  hedeseh,  the  feminine  of 
hedes,  a  myrtle,  Esther  ii.  7.  The  note  of  the  Chaldee  Targum  on 
the  passage  seems  remarkable :  *  They  called  her  hedesch,  because 
she  was  just,  and  the  just  are  those  that  are  compared  to  myrtle.' 


THE    LILY. 

THIS  well-known  and  beautiful  flower  is  called,  in  Hebrew,  shu- 
shan,  and  in  Greek  krinon;  which  words  seem  to  denote  the  light 
which  it  so  strongly  reflects,  that  even  Solomon  in  all  his  glory  was 
not  arrayed  like  one  of  them,  Matt.  vi.  28,  29.  Mr.  '['ay  lor  suggests 
that  this  flower  was  probably  designed  by  the  bride,  who  compares 


THE  LILY.  249 

herself  to  'a  flower  of  the  brook  side'  (Cant.  ii.  1) ;  not  of  a  cultiva- 
ted garden.  The  white  lily  is  a  flower  of  the  field,  in  Persia ;  and 
some  of  its  species  may  be  field-flowers  in  Judea.  Besides  this, 
there  is  the  martagon,  crown  imperial,  and  other  colored  lilies.  If 
the  comparison  of  our  Saviour  be  to  the  whiteness  of  Solomon's 
raiment,  then,  certainly,  it  never  equalled  the  brilliant  whiteness  01 
a  lily  : — if  it  be  to  the  resplendence  of  colors,  then  the  mixture,  the 
relief,  the  glow  of  colors,  in  some  kinds  of  lilies,  exceeds  whatever 
the  manufacturers  of  stuffs  for  Solomon's  wardrobe  could  compose. 
The  lily  of  the  field  was  perhaps  present  and  pointed  at,  when  our 
Divine  Master  suggested  this  simile :  if  so,  it  was  certainly  a  wild 
lily  that  was  intended. 

Among  the  ornaments  of  the  temple  furniture,  the  lily  occupied 
a  conspicuous  place.  The  brim  of  the  molten  sea  was  wrought 
with  flowers  of  lilies  (1  Kings  vii.  26)  ;  the  chapiters  that  were  up- 
on the  tops  of  the  pillars  were  of  lily  work,  (ver.  19)  and  the  tops 
of  the  pillars  were  ornamented  in  the  same  manner,  ver.  22. 

Sir  Robert  Ker  Porter,  describing  a  piece  of  sculpture,  which  he 
discovered  among  the  ruins  of  the  palace  of  forty  pillars,  at  Perse- 
polis,  remarks,  *  Almost  every  one  in  this  procession  holds  in  his 
hand  a  figure  like  the  lotos.  This  flower  was  full  of  meaning 
among  the  ancients,  and  occurs  all  over  the  East.  Egypt,  Persia, 
Palestine,  and  India,  present  it  every  where  over  their  architecture, 
in  the  hands  and  on  the  heads  of  their  sculptured  figures,  whether 
in  statue  or  in  bas  relief.  We  also  find  it  in  the  sacred  vestments 
and  architecture  of  the  tabernacle  and  temple  of  the  Israelites,  and 
see  it  mentioned  by  our  Saviour,  as  an  image  of  peculiar  beauty 
and  glory,  when  comparing  the  works  of  nature  with  the  decora- 
tions of  art.  It  is  also  represented  in  all  pictures  of  the  salutation 
of  Gabriel  to  the  Virgin  Mary ;  and,  in  fact,  has  been  held  in  mys^ 
terious  veneration  by  people  of  all  nations  and  times.  '  It  is  the 
symbol  of  divinity,  of  purity,  and  abundance,  and  of  a  love  most 
complete  in  perfection,  charity,  and  benediction  ;  as  in  holy  scrip- 
ture, that  mirror  of  purity,  Susanna  is  defined  Susa,  which  signifieth 
the  lily  flower,  the  chief  city  of  the  Persians  Bearing  that  name  for 
excellency.  Hence  the  lily's  three  leaves  in  the  arms  of  France, 
meaneth  Piety,  Justice,  and  Charity.'  So  far  the  general  impres- 
sion of  a  peculiar  regard  to  this  beautiful  and  fragrant  flower ;  but 
the  early  Persians  attached  to  it  a  peculiar  sanctity.' 


CUMMIN. 

THIS  is  an  umbelliferous  plant,  resembling  fennel  in  its  appearance 
and  growing  plentifully  in  Lesser  Asia,  Egypt,  Syria,  Spain,  Italy, 
and  other  hot  countries.  It  produces  a  seed  which  has  a  bitterish 


250  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

warm  taste,  accompanied  with  an  aromatic  flavor,  not  of  he  most 
agreeable  kind.  The  Jews  sowed  it  in  their  fields,  and  when  ripe, 
thrashed  put  the  seeds  with  a  rod,  Isaiah  xxviii.  25,  27.  The  Mal- 
tese sow  it,  and  collect  the  seeds  in  the  same  manner.  Our  Lord 
reproved  the  Scribes  and  Pharisees  for  so  scrupulously  paying  the 
tithe  of  mint,  anise  and  cummin,  while  they  neglected  good  works, 
and  more  essential  obedience  to  God's  law,  Matt,  xxiii.  23. 


ANISE. 

PROFESSOR  CAMPBELL  has  pointed  out  the  mistake  into  which 
our  translators  have  fallen,  by  confounding  two  words  which  have 
no  connexion — andhon  and  anison;  the  former  is  that  used  in  the 
text,  and  signifies,  not  anise,  but  dill :  the  latter  denotes  anise,  but  it 
does  not  occur  in  the  sacred  writings. 


HYSSOP. 

THIS  vegetable  receives  its  name  from  its  detersive  and  cleansing 
qualities,  whence  it  was  used  in  sprinkling  the  blood  of  the  paschal 
lamb  (Exod.  xii.  22;)  in  cleansing  the  leprosy  (Lev.  xiv.  4,  6,  51, 
52;)  in  composing  the  water  of  purification  (Numb.  xix.  6,)  and 
also  in  sprinkling  it,  ver.  18.  It  was  typical  of  the  purifying  virtue 
of  the  bitter  sufferings  of  Christ,  and  it  is  plain,  from  Ps.  li.  9,  that 
the  Psalmist  understood  its  import. 

The  hyssop  is  an  herb  of  a  bitter  taste,  and  grows  on  the  moun- 
tains near  Jerusalem,  as  well  as  on  the  walls  of  the  city.  Hassel- 
quist  speaks  of  some  which  was  a  very  diminutive  moss — a  strik- 
ing contrast  to  the  tall  and  majestic  cedar.  See  1  Kings  iv.  33. 

Bochart,  Scheuchzer,  Parkhurst,  and  other  critics,  to  get  rid  of  a 
supposed  discrepancy  between  the  evangelists,  have  conceived  that 
the  hyssop  of  John  xix.  29  must  be  considered  as  synonymous 
with  the  reed  or  cane  of  Matt,  xxvii.  48,  and  Mark  xv.  36 ;  and 
hence  Wolfius  has  taken  some  pains  to  show  that  there  was  a 
species  of  hyssop  whose  stalk  was  sometimes  two  feet  long,  and 
therefore  sufficient  to  reach  a  person  on  a  cross,  that  was  by  no 
means  so  lofty  as  some  have  erroneously  conceived.  But  the  diffi- 
culty, as  Dr.  Harris  has  shown,  is  not  in  the  text  itself,  which  is 
sufficiently  imelligible,  and  clearly  compatible  with  the  statement 
of  the  other  evangelists.  John  does  not  mention  the  reed ;  but 
says,  that  when  they  had  put  the  sponge  upon  hyssop ;  that  is, 
when  they  Jiad  added  bitttr  to  the  sour,  or  gall  to  the  vinegar,  they 
advance  jt  to  our  Saviour's  mouth,  no  doubt,  with  the  reed. 


THE  JUNIPER.  251 


THE    JUNIPER. 

IT  is  very  questionable  whether  this  shrub  is  mentioned  in  scrip- 
ture, though  it  is  found  in  our  translation. 

In  1  Kings  xix.  4,  we  read  of  the  prophet  sheltering  himself 
under  a  return,  [Eng.  Tr.  juniper-tree,]  as  Jonah  was  glad  to  avail 
himself  of  the  frail  covert  of  a  gourd  from  the  oppressive  heat  of 
the  sun,  Jonah  iv.  8. 

In  Job  xxx.  3,  4,  the  afflicted  patriarch  speaks  of  those  having 
him  in  derision, 

Who  were,  yesterday,  gnawers  of  the  desert, 
Of  the  waste  nnd  the  wilderness  ; 
Plucking  nettles  from  the  bushes, 
Or  Juniper-  [retcm]  roots  for  their  food. 

But  this  passage  will  not  help  us  to  determine  whether  the  retem 
be  the  juniper  or  the  broom  ;  for  the  roots  of  neither  the  one  nor  the 
other,  nor,  indeed,  of  any  other  plants  in  those  arid  deserts,  could 
furnish  a  nutritive  article  of  food.  The  circumstance  is  mentioned 
as  a  proof  of  their  utter  destitution,  and  Parkhurst  has  shown,  from 
several  writers,  that  the  mostinnutritive  substances  have  been  eaten 
among  many  people  in  times  and  places  of  scarcity  and  famine. 
Dr.  Good  quotes  the  following  passage  in  Lucan,  as  bearing  a 
striking  resemblance  to  the  description  of  Job  : — 

He  marks  the  wretched  throng, 
Seize  food  for  cattle,  crop  the  prickly  brier, 
And  fell  the  grove  with  gnawing. 

The  Psalmist  (cxx.  4,)  mentions  the  coals  of  the  juniper  as  afford- 
ing the  fiercest  fire  of  any  combustible  matter  that  he  found  in 
the  desert,  and  therefore  the  fittest  punishment  for  a  deceitful 
tongue:  'What  shall  be  given  unto  thee,  or  what  shall  be  done 
unto  thee,  thou  false  tongue  ?  Sharp  arrows  of  the  mighty,  with 
coals  of  juniper.'  That  is,  The  wrath  of  God,  like  a  keen  and 
barbed  arrow  from  the  bow  of  the  mighiy,  shall  pierce  the  strongest 
armor,  and  strike  deep  into  the  hardest  heart,  and,  like  the  fierce 
and  protracted  flame  of  the  juniper,  shall  torment  the  liar  with  un- 
utterable anguish. 


SECTION  II. 


THE    CUCUMBER. 

THIS  is  very  common  fruit  amongst  us,  but  is  much  more  so  in 
Egypt,  where  it  is  also  more  agreeable  to  the  taste,  and  more  easy 
of  digestion.  Hasselquist  supposes  the  cucumber  mentioned  in 
Numb.  xi.  5,  to  be  the  'queen  of  cucumbers,'  which  he  thus 
describes:  'It  grows  in  the  fertile  earth  round  Cairo,  after  the 
inundation  of  the  Nile,  and  not  in  any  other  place  in  Egypt,  nor  in 
any  other  soil.  It  ripens  with  water-melons ;  its  flesh  is  almost  of 
the  same  substance,  but  is  not  near  so  cool.  The  grandees  eat  it 
as  the  most  pleasant  food  they  find,  and  that  from  which  they  have 
least  to  apprehend.  It  is  the  most  excellent  of  this  tribe  of  any  yet 
known.' 

Mr.  Jowett  has  the  following  passage  in  his  *  Christian  Research- 
es.' '  Extensive  fields  of  ripe  melons  and  cucumbers  adorned  the 
sides  of  the  river  [Nile] ;  they  grew  in  such  abundance,  that  the 
sailors  freely  helped  themselves.  Some  guard,  however,  is  placed 
upon  them.  Occasionally,  but  at  long  and  desolate  intervals,  we 
may  observe  a  little  hut,  made  of  reeds,  just  capable  of  containing 
one  man ;  being,  in  fact,  little  more  than  a  fence  against  a  north 
wind.  In  these  I  have  observed,  sometimes,  a  poor  old  man,  per- 
haps lame,  feebly  protecting  the  property.  It  exactly  illustrates 
Isaiah  i.  8:  'And  the  daughter  of  Zion  is  left,  as  a  lodge  in  a 
garden  of  cucumbers.'  The  numbers  of  these  most  necessary 
vegetables  bring  to  mind  the  murmurs  of  the  Israelites:  ,'We 
remember  the  cucumbers,  and  the  melons,  and  the  leeks,  and  the 
onions,  and  the  garlic:  but  now  our  soul  is  dried  away.' 


THE    MELON. 

MELONS  are  in  the  Hebrew  scriptures  named  from  the  verb 
which  signifies  to  hang  close,  cling,  &c. ;  and  they  are  no  doubt  so 
named  from  the  manner  in  which  their  tendrils  cling  to  whatever 
they  can  lay  hold  on,  in  order  to  support  themselves.  Hasselquist 
says,  the  melon  is  cultivated  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile,  in  the  rich 
clayey  earth,  which  subsides  during  the  inundation*  and  in  the  Isl- 
and Delta,  especially  at  Burlos,  whence  the  largest  and  best  are 


THE  MANDRAKE.  253 

brought.  This  serves  the  Egyptians  for  meat,  drink,  and  physic. 
The  flesh  of  it  is  eaten  with  bread;  the  juice  of  it  is  collected  in  a 
hole  made  in  the  melon,  and  is  a  most  refreshing,  but  sometimes 
dangerous  drink  ;  and  the  same  juice,  mixed  with  rose-water  and 
a  little  sugar,  is  the  only  medicine  used  by  the  common  people  in 
-burning  fevers.  This  is  very  comfortable  to  the  patient,  for  it 
cools  and  refreshes  him.  See  Numb.  xi.  5. 


THE    MANDRAKE. 

THERE  are  two  sorts  of  Mandrakes: — the/ewidfe,  which  is  black, 
having  leaves  not  unlike  lettuce,  though  smaller  and  narrower, 
which  spread  on  the  ground,  and  have  a  disagreeable  smell.  It 
bears  berries  something  like  services,  pale,  of  a  strong  smell,  having 
kernels  within,  like  those  of  pears.  It  has  two  or  three  very  large 
roots,  twisted  together,  white  within,  black  without,  and  covered 
with  a  thick  rind.  The  other  kind,  or  male  mandrake,  is  called 
morion,  or  folly,  because  it  suspends  the  use  of  the  senses.  It  pro- 
duces berries  twice  the  size  of  those  of  the  female,  of  a  good  scent, 
and  of  a  color  approaching  towards  saffron.  Its  leaves  are  white, 
large,  broad,  and  smooth,  like  the  leaves  of  the  beech  tree.  Its 
root  resembles  that  of  the  female,  but  is  thicker  and  bigger.  This 
plant  stupifies  those  who  use  it;  sometimes  depriving  them  of  un- 
derstanding ;  and  often  causes  such  vertigoes  and  lethargies,  that, 
if  those  who  have  taken  it  have  not  present  assistance,  they  die  in 
convulsions. 

From  Cant.  vii.  13,  it  appears  that  the  mandrake  yielded  a  re- 
markable smell  at  the  time  when  the  vines  and  pomegranates 
flowered,  which  in  Judea  is  about  the  end  of  April,  or  beginning 
of  May.  It  is  probable,  therefore,  that  this  circumstance  of  their 
smell  is  to  be  referred  to  the  fruit  rather  than  to  the  flower,  espe- 
cially as  Brookes,  who  has  given  a  particular  description  and  a 
print  of  the  plant,  expressly  observes  that  the  fruit  has  a  strong, 
nauseous  smell,  though  he  says  nothing  about  the  scent  of  a  flow- 
er. 


22 


SECTION  III. 


THORNY  SHRUBS  AND  PLANTS. 

IN  the  curse  pronounced  on  the  ground  (Genesis  iii.  17,  18) 
says  Dr.  A.  Clarke,  there  is  much  more  implied  than  generally  ap- 
pears. The  amazing  fertility  of  some  of  the  most  common  thistles 
and  thorns  renders  them  the  most  proper  instruments  for  the  fulfil- 
ment of  this  sentence  against  man.  Thistles  multiply  enormously : 
a  species  called  the  Carolina  silveslris  bears  ordinarily  from  twenty 
to  forty  heads,  each  containing  from  one  hundred  to  one  hundred 
and  fifty  seeds.  Another  species,  called  the  Acanthum  vulgare, 
produces  above  100  heads,  each  containing  from  300  to  400  seeds. 
Suppose  we  s:«.y  that  these  thistles  produce  at  a  medium,  only  80 
heads,  and  that  each  contains  only  300  seeds ;  the  first  crop  from 
these  would  amount  to  24,000.  Let  these  be  sown,  and  their  crop 
will  amount  to  576  millions.  Sow  these,  and  their  produce  will  be 
13,824,000,000,000,  or  thirteen  billions,  eight  hundred  and  twenty- 
four  thousand  millions :  arid  a  single  crop  from  these,  which  is  only 
the  third  year's  growth,  would  amount  to  331,776,000,000,000,000, 
or  three  hundred  and  thirty-one  thousand,  seven  hundred  and 
seventy-six  billions;  and  the  fourth  year's  growth  will  amount  to 
7962,624,000,000,000,000,000,  or  seven  thousand  nine  hundred  and 
sixty-two  trillions,  six  hundred  and  twenty-four  thousand  billions  ! 
a  progeny  more  than  sufficient  to  stock  not  only  the  surface  of  the 
whole  world,  but  of  all  the  planets  in  the  solar  system,  so  that  no 
other  plant  or  vegetable  could  possibly  grow,  allowing  but  the 
space  of  one  square  foot  for  each  plant.  The  Carduus  vulgatissi- 
mus  viarum,  or  common  hedge-thistle,  besides  the  almost  infinite 
swarms  of  winged  seeds  it  sends  forth,  spreads  its  roots  around 
many  yards,  and  throws  up  suckers  every  where,  which  not  only 
produce  seeds  in  their  turn,  but  extend  their  roots,  and  propagate 
like  the  parent  plant,  and  stifle  and  destroy  all  vegetation  but  their 
own. 

As  to  thorns,  the  bramble,  which  occurs  so  commonly,  and  is  so 
mischievous,  is  a  sufficient  proof  how  well  the  means  are  calcula- 
ted to  secure  the  end.  The  genista,  or  spinosa  vulgaris,  called  by 
some  furze,  by  others  whins,  is  allowed  to  be  one  of  the  most  mis- 
chievous shrubs  on  the  face  of  the  earth.  Scarcely  any  thing  can 
grow  near  it ;  and  it  is  so  thick  set  with  prickles,  that  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  touch  it  without  being  wounded.  It  is  very  prolific ; 
almost  half  the  year  it  is  covered  with  flowers,  which  produce  pods 
filled  with  seeds.  Besides,  it  shoots  out  roots  far  and  wide,  from 


THE  THORN.  255 

which  suckers  and  young  plants  are  continually  springing  up,  which 
produce  others  in  their  turn.  Where  it  is  permitted  to  grow,  it  soon 
overspreads  whole  tracts  of  ground,  and  it  is  extremely  difficult  to 
clear  the  land  of  its  roots  where  once  it  has  got  proper  footing. 
Such  provision  has  the  just  God  made  to  fulfil  the  curse  which  he 
has  pronounced  on  the  earth,  because  of  the  crimes  of  its  inhabi- 
tants. 


THE  THORN. 

OF  the  Thorn  there  are  several  sorts,  and  to  designate  them  the 
sacred  writers  employ  different  terms,  which  it  is  by  no  means  easy 
to  discriminate  with  accuracy  and  confidence.  The  late  editor  of 
Calmel  has  enumerated  eight  different  words  in  the  original,  ren- 
dered '  thorns'  or  '  briers'  in  our  version,  and  Dr.  Harris  has  extend- 
ed the  list. 

The  first  time  that  this  description  of  plants  is  mentioned,  is  in 
the  denunciation  of  punishment  on  the  human  race,  in  Gen.  iii.  18, 
'thorns  and  thistles;'  Paul  uses  the  same  words,  in  Heb.  vi.  8, 
where  the  last  is  rendered  *  briers ; '  they  are  also  found  in  Hos.  x.  8. 
The  word  occurs  in  other  places  (Exod.  xxii.  6;  Judges  viii.  6; 
xxviii.  24) ;  but  whether  it  denotes  a  specific  kind  of  thorn,  or  is  a 
generic  name  for  all  kinds  of  thorny  plants,  is  uncertain.  There  is 
a  beautiful  apothegm  in  Prov.  xv.  J9: — 'The  way  of  the  slothful  is 
as  a  hedge  of  thorns:  but  the  way  of  the  righteous  is  plain.'  The 
beautiful  opposition  in  the  original  is  not  discoverable  in  the  Eng- 
lish version : — '  The  narrow  way  of  the  slothful  is  like  perplexed 
pathways  among  sharp  thorns:  whereas,  the  broad  road  of  the  right- 
eous is  a  high  bank'  (a  causeway);  that  is,  straight-forward,  free 
from  obstructions ;  the  direct,  conspicuous,  open  path.  Upon  this 
passage  Mr.  Taylor  remarks,  1.  The  common  course  of  life  of  these 
two  characters  answers  to  this  comparison.  2.  Their  manner  of 
going  about  business,  or  of  transacting  it,  answers  to  this :  an  idle 
man  always  prefers  the  most  intricate,  the  most  oblique,  and  event- 
ually, the  most  thorny  measures,  to  accomplish  his  purpose :  the 
honest  man  prefers  the  most  liberal,  and  straight-forward. 

We  have  already  remarked  that  the  word  employed  in  the  New 
Testament  for  thorns,  is  akantha.  There  has  been  some  variety  of 
opinion  among  critics,  as  to  the  nature  of  the  thorn  of  which  our 
Lord's  crown  was  composed,  Matt,  xxvii.  29.  It  was  without  doubt 
of  some  kind  of  prickly  shrub,  though  what  it  was  cannot  now  be 
ascertained. 


256  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 


THE    BRAMBLE. 

THE  word  occurs  in  Judges  ix.  14,  15,  and  in  Psa.  Iviii.  1(X 
In  the  latter  passage  it  is  rendered  thorn;  in  the  former,  bramble. 
It  is  armed  with  thorns ;  its  branches  are  supple  and  pliant ;  and  its 
leaf  is  of  a  deep  green,  like  that  of  the  ivy.  It  is  certain  that  such 
a  tree  is  required  as  may  well  denote  a  tyrant ;  one  who,  instead  of 
affording  shade  and  shelter  to  such  as  seek  his  protection,  strips 
them  of  their  property,  as  a  bramble  bush  does  the  sheep  which 
come  near  it,  or  lie  down  under  its  shadow.  There  is  a  passage  in 
Holland's  translation  of  Plutarch  admirably  illustrative  of  this  sub- 
ject :— *  Whereupon  is  thought  that  he  [Demosthenes]  forsook  his 
colors  and  fled;  now  as  he  made  haste  away,  there  chanced  a  bram- 
ble to  take  hold  of  his  cassock  behinde,  whereat  he  turned  back 
and  said  unto  the  bramble,  '  Save  my  life,  and  take  my  ransome."* 
Folio  567. 


NETTLES. 

THERE  are  two  different  words  rendered  ;  nettles'  in  the  English 
Bible :    They  occur  in  (Prov.  xxiv.  31,  Isa.  xxxiv.  13. 
and  in  (Jobxxx.  7,  Prov.  xxiv.  31,  ZepiJ.  ii.  9.) 


SECTION    IV. 
ONIONS,     AND    SIMILAR    PLANTS. 

ONIONS. 

'  WHOEVER  has  tasted  onions  in  Egypt/  says  Hasselquist, '  must 
allow,  that  none  can  be  had  better,  in  any  part  of  the  world  ;  here 
they  are  sweet,  in  other  countries;  they  are  nauseous  and  strong  ; 
here  they  are  soft  whereas  in  the  North,  and  other  parts,  they  are 
hard,  and  the  coats  so  compact,  that  they  are  hard  of  digestion. 
Hence  they  cannot,  in  any  place,  be  eaten  with  less  prejudice,  and 
more  satisfaction,  than  in  Egypt.  They  eat  them  roasted,  cut  into 
four  pieces,  with  some  bits  of  roasted  meat,  and  with  this  dish  they 
are  so  delighted,  that  I  have  heard  them  wish  they  might  enjoy  it 
in  Paradise.  They  likewise  make  a  soup  of  them,  cutting  the  on- 
ions in  small  pieces ;  this  is  one  of  the  best  dishes  I  ever  ate.' 

As  further  illustrative  of  the  passage  above  referred  to,  we  may 
observe,  that  among  the  vegetables  used  by  the  Egyptians  for  food, 
melons,  cucumbers,  and  onions,  are  the  most  common.  Concern- 
ing the  last,  he  says,  '  they  are  sweeter  than  in  any  other  place  in 
the  world  ;'  and  in  the  streets  of  Cairo,  they  sell  them  ready  prepar- 
ed for  eating. 


GARLICK. 

THIS  word  occurs  only  in  one  passage  of  scripture  (Numb.  xi.  5), 
where  it  is  joined  with  leeks  and  onions,  and  would,  therefore,  seem 
to  be  some  plant  of  a  similar  kind. 


LEEKS. 

THE  Hebrew  word  which  is  translated,  'leek,'  in  Numb.  xi.  5, is. 
as  we  have  already  noticed,  a  general  term  for  herbage  or  grass, 
and  has  been  so  translated  in  several  passages  of  our  Bible.  Re- 
ferring to  1  Kings  xviii.  5,  Harmer  says,  It  can  hardly  be  allowed 
to  mean  leeks,  because  it  is  there  used  to  express  the  food  of  horses 
and  mules,  but  may  very  well  stand  for  such  vegetables  as  grew 
promiscuously  with  grass,  which  the  succory  or  endive  does,  and 
this,  being  of  a  very  cool  nature,  and  much  used  in  Egypt,  he 
takes  to  be  the  herbage  intended  by  the  original  text. 
22* 


SECTION  V. 
FLAX. 


THIS  is  a  well  known  vegetable,  upon  which  the  industry  of 
mankind  has  been  exercised  with  the  greatest  success  and  utility. 
On  passing  a  field  of  it,  one  is  struck  with  astonishment,  when  he 
considers  that  this  apparently  insignificant  plant  may,  by  the  labor 
and  ingenuity  of  man,  be  made  to  assume  an  entirely  new  form 
and  appearance,  and  to  contribute  to  pleasure  and  health,  by  fur- 
nishing us  with  agreeable  and  ornamental  apparel. 

From  time  immemorial,  Egypt  was  celebrated  for  the  produc- 
tion or  manufacture  of  flax.  Wrought  into  inner  garments,  it  con- 
stituted the  principal  dress  of  the  inhabitants,  and  the  priests  never 
put  on  any  other  kind  of  clothing.  The  fine  linen  of  Egypt  is 
celebrated  in  all  ancient  authors,  and  its  superior  excellence  is 
mentioned  in  the  sacred  Scripture.  The  manufacure  of  flax  is 
still  carried  on  in  that  country. 

In  Deut.  xxvii.  11,  is  a  prohibition  of  wearing  a  garment  of  flax 
and  wool.  The  original  word  translated  'linen  and  woollen,'  (Lev. 
xix.  19),  is  difficult  of  explanation.  We  are  inclined  to  believe  that 
it  must  rather  refer  to  a  garment  of  divers  sorts,  than  to  what  we 
call  '  linsey  woolsey ; '  to  one  made  up  of  patch- work,  differently 
colored  and  arranged,  perhaps,  for  pride  and  show,  like  the  coat 
of  many  colors  made  by  Jacob  for  his  son  Joseph,  Gen.  xxxvii.  3. 

In  predicting  the  gentleness,  caution,  and  tenderness  with  which 
the  Messiah  should  manage  his  administration,  Isaiah  (ch.  xlii.  3) 
happily  illustrates  it  by  a  proverb :  *  The  bruised  reed  he  shall  not 
break,  and  the  smoking  flax  he  shall  not  quench.'  He  shall  not 
break  even  a  bruised  reed,  which  snaps  asunder  immediately  when 
pressed  with  any  considerable  weight;  nor  shall  he  extinguish 


THE  FLAX.  259 

even  the  smoking  flax,  or  the  wick  of  a  lamp,  which,  when  it  first 
begins  to  kindle,  is  put  out  hy  every  little  motion.  With  such 
kind  and  condescending  regards  to  the  weakest  of  his  people,  and 
to  the  first  openings  and  symptoms  of  a  hopeful  character,  shall  he 
proceed  till  he  send  forth  judgment  unto  victory,  or  till  he  make 
his  righteous  cause  victorious.  This  place  is  quoted  in  Matt, 
xii.  20,  where,  by  an  easy  metonomy,  the  material  for  the  thing 
made,  flax,  is  used  for  the  wick  of  a  lamp  or  taper;  and  that,  by  a 
synecdoche  for  the  lamp  or  taper  itself,  which,  when  near  going 
out,  yields  more  smoke  than  light.  'He  will  not  extinguish,  or  put 
out,  the  dying  lamp.' 

In  Jer.  xiii.  1,  a  linen  girdle  is  mentioned ;  and  in  Ezek.  xl.  3, 
a  measuring  line  ofjlax. 

Our  version  having  more  than  once  mentioned  'the  fine  linen  of 
Egypt,'  n umbers  of  people  have  been  ready  to  imagine,  that  their 
linen  manufactures  were  of  the  most  delicate  kind  ;  whereas,  in 
truth,  they  were  but  coarse.  This  is  proved  by  examining  that  in 
which  their  embalmed  bodies  are  found  wrapped  up.  So  Hassel- 
quist  observes:  'The  ancients  have  said  much  of  the  fine  linen  of 
Egypt;  and  many  of  our  learned  men  imagine  that  it  was  so  fine 
and  precious,  that  we  have  even  lost  the  art,  and  cannot  make  it  so 
good.  They  have  been  induced  to  think  so  by  the  commen- 
dations which  the  Greeks  have  lavished  on  the  Egyptian  linen. 
They  had  good  reason  for  doing  it,  for  they  had  no  flax 
themselves,  and  were  unacquainted  with  the  art  of  weav- 
ing: but  were  we  to  compare  a  piece  of  Holland  linen  with  the 
linen  in  which  the  mummies  were  laid,  and  which  is  of  the  oldest 
and  best  manufacture  of  Egypt,  we  shall  find  that  the  fine  linen  of 
Egypt  is  very  coarse  in  comparison  with  what  is  now  made.  The 
Egyptian  linen  was  fine,  and  sought  after  by  kings  and  princes, 
when  Egypt  was  the  only  country  that  cultivated  flax  and  knew 
how  to  use  it.' 

Our  translators  have  been  unfortunate  in  this  article,  says  Dr. 
Harris,  in  supposing  that  one  of  the  words  might  signify  silk,  and 
forgetting  cloth  made  of  cotton.  When  Joseph  was  arrayed  in 
Egypt  as  viceroy  of  that  country,  they  represent  him  as  clothed  in 
vestures  of  '  fine  linen'  (Gen.  xli.  42),  but  being  dubious  of  the 
meaning  of  the  word  there,  they  render  it  'silk'  in  the  margin.  This 
was  very  unhappy :  for  they  not  only  translate  the  word  '  linen'  in 
a  multitude  of  other  places ;  but,  certainly,  whatever  the  word  sig- 
nifies, it  cannot  mean  silk,  which  was  not  used,  we  have  reason  to 
think,  in  those  parts  of  the  world,  till  long  after  the  time  of  Joseph. 
They  have  gone  farther,  for  they  have  made  the  word  'silk,'  the 
textual  translation  of  the  Hebrew  term,  in  Prov.  xxxi.  22,  which 
verse  describes  the  happy  effects  of  female  Jewish  industry.  '  She 
maketh  herself  coverings  of  tapestry ;  her  clothing  is  pink  and 
purple.'  They  suppose,  then,  that  the  Jewish  women,  of  not  the 
highest  rank  in  the  time  of  Solomon,  were  clothed  with  vestments 
made  of  a  material  so  precious  in  former  times,  we  are  told,  as  to 
be  sold  for  its  weight  in  gold. 


C  HAPTER  III. 
TREES. 

WE  now  advance  a  step  higher  in  our  botanical  researches,  and 
proceed  to  a  consideration  of  the  dendrology  of  the  sacred  writings. 

The  consecration  of  groves  to  the  gods  of  Pagan  antiquity  is  a 
circumstance  with  which  every  reader  of  ancient  history  must  be 
familiar.  The  custom  is  so  ancient,  that  it  is  thought  to  have  been 
antecedent  to  the  consecration  of  temples  and  altars.  This,  how- 
ever, is  very  questionable,  for  the  ashel  of  Abraham,  rendered 
*  grove'  in  the  English  version  of  the  Bible,  being  differently  ex- 
pressed from  the  consecrated  groves  spoken  of  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, is  rather  to  be  understood  of  a  single  tree  ;  perhaps  the  oak, 
or  the  tamarisk.  But  be  this  as  it  may,  it  is  certain  that  the  use  of 
sacred  groves,  for  the  celebration  of  mysteries,  is  of  very  high  an- 
tiquity, and  perhaps  of  all  others  the  most  universal.  At  .first  there 
were  in  these  groves  neither  temple  nor  altar :  they  were  simple  re- 
treats, to  which  there  was  no  access  for  the  profane,  or  such  as  were 
not  devoted  to  the  service  of  the  gods.  Afterwards  temples  were 
built  in  these  retreats,  and  to  preserve  so  ancient  a  custom,  they 
took  care,  whenever  they  had  it  in  their  power,  to  plant  groves  round 
the  temples  and  altars,  which  groves  were  not  only  consecrated  to 
the  gods  in  honor  of  whom  the  temples  had  been  built,  but  were 
themselves  a  place  of  sanctuary  or  an  asylum  for  criminals,  who  fled 
thither  for  refuge. 

This  very  prevalent  custom  seems  to  have  originated  in  the  con- 
ception, that  shade  and  solitude  gave  an  air  of  mystery  and  devo- 
tion to  religious  services ;  and  were  adapted  to  inspire  the  worship- 
pers with  a  solemn  and  superstitious  dread  of  those  divinities  which 
they  were  taught  to  believe  were  present  in  such  sacred  places. 
'If  you  find,'  says  Seneca,  'a  grove  thick  set  with  ancient  oaks,  that 
have  shot  up  to  a  vast  height,  the  tallness  of  the  wood,  the  retire- 
ment of  the  place,  and  the  pleasantness  of  the  shade,  immediately 
make  you  think  it  to  be  the  residence  of  some  god.'  The  prophet 
also  intimates  this  to  have  been  the  reason :  'They  sacrifice  upon 
the  tops  of  the  mountains,  and  burn  incense  upon  the  hills,  under 
oaks  and  poplars,  and  elms,  because  the  shadow  thereof  is  good?  Hos. 
iv.  13. 

As  these  groves  were  the  more  immediate  scenes  of  these  im- 
pure rites  which  formed  the  leading  feature  of  the  systems  of  idol- 
latrous  worship,  the  Jewish  legislator  prohibited  his  people  from 
planting  trees  around  or  near  the  altar  of  God :  '  Thou  shalt  not 


.r 


TREES.  261 

plant  thee  a  grove  of  any  trees,  near  unto  the  altar  of  the  Lord  thy 
God,'  Deut.  xvi.  21.  From  their  proneness  to  imitate  the  customs 
of  the  surrounding  nations,  however,  the  Jewish  people  became 
guilty  of  sacrificing  in  high  places  and  in  consecrated  groves  :  and 
one  of  their  kings  carried  his  impiety  so  far  as  to  plant  one  of  these 
groves  at  Jerusalem,  2  Kings  xxi.  7. 

Landseer  has  attempted  to  show,  that  the  word  rendered  'groves' 
in  our  translation  of  the  Scriptures,  means  rather  a  kind  of  orrery 
or  armillary  machine  used  for  purposes  of  divination,  which  he  sup- 
poses to  have  been  about  the  height  of  a  man. 

It  is  certain  that  the  word  translated  '  groves'  cannot  always  be 
interpreted  to  mean  a  gi-ove  of  trees,  since  we  read  of  setting  up 
groves  '  under  every  green  tree'  (2  Kings,  xvii.  8,  &c.) ;  nor  can  it 
always  be  strictly  taken  as  an  image,  for  we  also  read  that  the  peo- 
ple *  made  them  molten  images,  and  made  a  grove,  and  worshipped 
all  the  host  of  heaven,'  and  used  divination,  ver.  16,  17.  (See  also 
Jufl^es  vi.  25,  26,  28,  '30).  Hence  Selden  supposes,  that  the  term 
was  used  for  the  images  worshipped  in  the  groves,  especially  As- 
tarte  or  Venus.  Others  have  conjectured  that  as  by  Baal  was 
meant  the  sun,  so  by  ashre  or « groves'  was  meant  the  moon,  wor- 
shipped  as  the  *  queen  of  heaven^' 


SECTION  I. 
FRUIT  TREES. 


THE  APPLE,  OR  CITRON  TREE 

THE  apple  tree,  is,  in  the  several  passages  where  it  is  spoken  of, 
represented  as  one  of  the  most  noble  trees  in  the  garden  of  nature, 
emitting  a  delightful  fragrance,  and  bearing  fruit  of  a  most  delicious 
kind.  'As  the  apple  tree  among  the  trees  of  the  wood,  so  is  my 
beloved  among  the  sons.  I  sat  down  under  his  shadow  with  great 
delight,  and  his  fruit  was  sweet  to  my  taste,'  Cant.  ii.  3.  *  I  will  go 
up  to  the  palm  tree,  I  will  take  hold  of  the  boughs  thereof;  now 
also  thy  breast  shall  be  as  the  clusters  of  the  vine,  and  the  smell  of 
thy  nose  like  apples,'  chap.  vii.  8.  In  the  following  passage  it  is 
classed  with  those  trees  which  are  peculiarly  beautiful  and  valua- 
ble :  'The  vine  is  dried  up,  and  the  -fig  tree  languisheth  ;  the  pome- 
granate tree,  the  palm  tree  also,  and  the  apple  tree,  even  all  the  trees 
of  the  field  are  withered:  because  joy  is  withered  away  from  the 
sons  of  men,'  Joel  i.  12. 

There  are  six  places  in  which  the  word  occurs ;  and  from  them 
we  learn  that  it  was  thought  the  noblest  of  the  trees  of  the  wood, 
and  that  its  fruit  was  very  sweet  or  pleasant  (Cant.  ii.  3,)  of  the  col- 
or of  gold  (Prov.  xxv.  Jl,)  extremely  fragrant  (Cant.  viii.  8,)  and 
proper  for  those  to  smell  who  were  ready  to  faint,  chap.  ii.  5. 
The  fifth  and  sixth  passages  (Cant.  vii.  5,  Joel,  i.  12,)  contain  noth- 
ing particular,  but  the  description  the  other  four  give,  perfectly  an- 
swers to  the  citron-tree  and  its  fruit. 

To  the  manner  of  serving  up  apples  in  his  court,  Solomon  seems 
to  refer,  when  he  says,  'A  word  fitly  spoken  is  like  apples 
[citrons]  of  gold  in  pictures  of  silver,'  Prov.  xxv.  11 :  whether  as 
Maimonides  supposes,  wrought  with  open  work  like  baskets,  or  cu- 
riously chased,  it  is  not  material  to  determine. 


THE   ALMOND  TREE. 

THE  almond  tree  is  too  well  known  to  need  a  description  here. 
It  flowers  in  the  month  of  January,  or  February,  and  by  March 
brings  its  fruits  to  maturity.  To  this  there  is  a  reference  in  the  vi- 


THE  ALMOND  TREE.  263 

sion  of  Jeremiah  (ch.  i.  11, 12);  'The  word  of  the  Lord  came  unto 
me,  saying,  Jeremiah,  what  seest  thou  ?  And  I  said,  I  see  a  rod 
of  an  almond  tree.  Then  said  the  Lord  unto  me,  Thou  hast  well 
seen,  for  I  am  hastening  or  watching  over  my  word  to  fulfil  it.' 
In  this  passage  there  is  one  of  those  paranomasias  so  frequent  in 
the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  but  whicli  it  is  impossible  to  preserve  in 
any  translation. 

It  is  probable,  as  Parkhurst  has  suggested,  that  the  chiefs  of  the 
tribes  bore  each  an  almond  rod,  as  emblematical  of  their  vigilance 
(Numb.  xvii.  6—8) ;  the  dead  almond  rod  of  Aaron,  which  after- 
wards blossomed  and  bore  fruit,  was  a  very  proper  emblem  of  Him 
who  first  rose  from  the  dead. 

Solomon  has  beautifully  described  the  approach  and  appearance 
of  old  age,  according  to  the  generality  of  interpreters,  in  the  ex- 
pression, 4  The  almond  tree  shall  flourish'  (Eccl.  xii.  5)— its  white 
blossoms  appearing  so  soon,  and  presenting  themselves  on  the  bare 
branches ;  but  it  must  be  admitted  that  there  is  considerable  force 
in  what  Mr.  Harmer  has  urged  against  this  interpretation.  Gray 
hairs,  he  remarks,  are  quite  consistent  with  vigorous  and  unailing 
old  age ;  besides  which,  it  is  very  untoward  to  suppose  that  the  ap- 
pearance of  these  blossoms,  which  marks  out  the  finishing  of  the 
winter,  the  approach  of  the  spring,  the  pleasantest  time  of  the  year, 
and  exhibits  the  tree  in  all  its  beauty,  should  be  used  to  represent 
the  approach  of  the  winter  of  human  life,  followed  by  death,  and  a 
disappearing  from  the  land  of  the  living.  Surely  the  one,  he  con- 
tinues, can  hardly  be  intended  to  be  descriptive  of  the  other:  and, 
if  not,  some  other  explanation  must  be  sought  for;  though  this  one 
seems  very  early  to  have  obtained,  if  we  may  judge  from  the  trans- 
lation of  the  Septuagint. 

We  have  already  seen  that  the  Hebrew  word  signifies,  literally, 
'a  watcher,'  and  that  it  is  used  metaphorically  of  the  almond  tree. 
Admitting  this,  Mr.  Harmer  suggests  that  the  clause  may  naturally 
be  interpreted,  by  explaining  it  of  the  frequency  of  the  attendance 
of  physicians,  who  appear  oftenest  at  court,  and  flourish  most  there 
when  the  prince  is  in  a  very  declining  state,  drawing  near  to  death. 
See  2  Chronicles  xvi.  21.  The  functions  of  a  physician,  with  re- 
gard to  the  body,  and  of  a  watchman  with  respect  to  a  palace,  are 
not  unlike:  they  appear  from  time  to  time  at  court;  but  much 
more  observable  as  well  as  frequently,  in  seasons  of  apprehension 
and  danger,  than  at  other  times. 


264  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 


THE  CHESNUT  TREE. 

IT  is  difficult  to  conceive  the  reasons  which  induced  the  English 
translators  to  render  the  Hebrew  aumuz  *  chesnut  tree.'  It  occurs 
only  in  Gen.  xxx.  37,  and  Ezek.  xxxi.  8 :  in  both  places  the  Vul- 
gate understand  the  '  plane  tree,'  as  do  the  LXX.  in  the  former 
passage,  but  in  the  latter  they  have  the  *  fir.'  The  majority  of  in- 
terpreters concur  with  the  Latin  version,  which  is  certainly  very 
suitable  to  the  sense  of  the  passage  in  the  prophet,  which  requires 
a  tree  possessing  extensive  branches,  and  producing  a  considerable 
shade ;  qualities  for  which  the  plane  tree  has  ever  been  celebrated. 


THE   FIG  TREE; 


fig  tree  is  very  Common  In  Palestine  and  the  East,  and  it 
flourishes  with  the  greatest  luxur'-ance  in  those  barren  and  stony 
situations  where  little  else  will  {Trow. 

Figs  are  of  two  sorts,  the  '  'ooccore,'  and  the  'kermoirse.'  The 
boccore,  or  early  fig,  is  produced  in  June,  though  the  kermouse, 
the  fig  properly  so  called,  which  is  preserved,  and  made  up  into 
cakes,  is  rarely  ripe  before  August.  There  is  also  a  long  dark  co- 
lored kermouse^  that  sometimes  hangs  upon  the  trees  all  the  win- 
ter. For  these  figs  generally  hang  a  long  time  upon  the  tree  be- 
fore they  drop  off;  whereas  the  boccores  drop  as  soon  as  they  are 
ripe,  and,  according  to  the  beautiful  allusion  of  the  prophet  Nahum, 
« fall  into  the  mouth  of  the  eater,  upon  being  shaken,'  ch.  iii.  12. 
Dr.  Shaw,  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  this  information,  remarks, 
that  these  trees  do  not  properly  blossom,  or  send  out  flowers,  as 
we  render  Hab.  iii.  17.  They  may  rather  be  said  to  shoot  out  their 


THE  FIG  TREE.  265 

fruit,  which  they  do,  like  so  many  little  buttons,  with  their  flowers, 
small  and  imperfect  as  they  are,  inclosed  within  them. 

When  this  intelligent  traveller  visited  Palestine,  in  the  latter  end 
of  March,  the  boccore  was  far  from  being  in  a  state  of  maturity ; 
for,  in  the  scripture  expression,  '  the  time  of  figs  was  not  yet' 
(Mark  xi.  13,)  or  not  till  the  middle  or  latter  end  of  June.  The 
'time'  here  mentioned,  is  supposed  by  some  authors,  to  be  the 
third  year,  in  which  the  fruit  of  a  particular  kind  of  fig  tree  is  said 
to  come  to  perfection.  But  this  species,  if  there  be  any  such,  needs 
to  be  further  known  and  described,  before  any  argument  can  be 
founded  upon  it.  Dionysius  Syrus,  as  he  is  translated  by  Dr.  Lpf- 
tus,  is  more  to  the  purpose:  'it  was  not  the  time  of  figs,' he  re- 
marks, because  it  was  the  month  Nisan,  when  trees  yielded  blos- 
soms, and  not  fruit.  It  frequently  happens  in  Barbary,  however, 
and  it  need  not  be  doubted  in  the  wanner  climate  of  Palestine,  that, 
according  to  the  quality  of  the  preceding  season,  some  of  the  more 
forward  and  vigorous  trees  will  now  and  then  yield  a  few  ripe  figs, 
six  weeks  or  more  before  the  full  season.  Something  like  this  may 
be  alluded  to  by  the  prophet  Hosea,  when  he  says  he  ' saw  their 
fathers  as  the  first  ripe  in  the  fig  tree  at  her  first  time'  (ch.  ix.  10 ;) 
and  by  Isaiah,  who,  speaking  of  the  beauty  of  Samaria,  and  her 
rapid  declension,  says,  she  'shall  be  a  fading  flower,  and  as  the 
hasty  fruit  before  the  summer ;  which,  when  he  that  looketh  upon 
it  seeth,  while  it  is  yet  in  his  hand,  he  eateth  it  up,'  ch.  xxviii.  4. 

When  the  boccore  draws  near  to  perfection,  then  the  kennouse, 
the  summer  fig,  or  caricse,  begin  to  be  formed,  though  they  rarely 
ripen  before  August ;  at  which  time  there  appears  a  third  crop,  or 
the  winter  fig,  as  it  may  be  called.  This  is  usually  of  a  much  lon- 
ger shape  and  darker  complexion  than  the  kermouse,  hanging  and 
ripening  on  the  tree,  even  after  the  leaves  are  shed  ;  and,  provided 
the  winter  prove  mild  and  temperate,  is  gathered  as  a  delicious 
morsel  in  the  spring.  We  learn  from  Pliny,  that  the  fig  tree  was 
bifera,  or  bore  two  crops  of  figs;  namely,  the  boccore,  as  we  may 
imagine,  and  the  kermouse ;  though  what  he  relates  afterwards, 
should  intimate  that  there  was  also  a  winter  crop. 

It  is  well  known,  that  the  fruit  of  these  prolific  trees  always  pre- 
cedes the  leaves ;  and  consequently,  when  our  Saviour  saw  one  of 
them  in  full  vigor  having  leaves  (Mark  xi.  13),  he  might,  according 
to  the  common  course  of  nature,  very  justly  'look  for  frnit;'  and 
haply  find  some  boccores,  if  not  some  winter  figs,  likewise,  upon  it. 
But  the  difficulties  connected  with  the  narration  of  this  transaction, 
will  not  allow  of  its  dismissal  in  this  summary  manner.  We  say,  in 
the  narration,  for  we  apprehend  that  the  remark  of  Dr.  Shaw  is 
quite  satisfactory  as  to  the  reasonableness  of  our  Lord's  conduct  on 
the  occasion,  notwithstanding  the  multiplied  objections  \vliich  igno- 
rance and  irreligion  have  urged  against  it 

We  now  look  at  the  construction  of  the  passage,  which  has  occa- 
sioned so  much  embarrassment  to  commentators,  and  has  given  rise 
to  more  discussion,  perhaps,  than  any  other  narrative  in  the  New 
23 


266  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

Testament.  In  our  translation,  the  passage  stands  thus,  which  is 
strictly  according  to  the  order  of  the  words  in  the  original  text : 
4  And  on  the  morrow,  when  they  were  come  from  Bethany,  he  (Je- 
sus) was  hungry:  and  seeing  a  fig  tree  afar  off,  having  leaves,  he 
came,  if  haply  he  might  find  anything  thereon:  and  when  he  came 
to  it,  he  found  nothing  hut  leaves ;  for  the  time  of  figs  was  not  yet. 
And  Jesus  said  unto  it,  "  No  man  eat  fruit  of  thee  hereafter  for  ever/' ' 
Mark  xi.  12 — 14.  Here  the  whole  difficulty  results  from  the  con- 
nexion of  the  two  last  clauses  of  the  13th  verse:  'And  when  he 
came  to  it  he  found  nothing  but  leaves — for  the  time  of  figs  was  not 
yel'  for  the  declaration,  that  it  was  not  yet  fig  harvest,  cannot  be 
(as  the  order  of  the  words  seem  to  import)  the  reason  why  there 
was  nothing  but  leaves  on  the  tree  ;  because,  as  we  have  seen,  the 
fig  is  of  that  tribe  of  vegetables  on  which  the  fruit  appears  before 
the  leaf.  Certainly,  fruit,  says  Mr.  Weston,  might  be  expected  of  a 
tree  whose  leaves  were  distinguished  afar  off,  and  whose  fruit,  if  it. 
bore  any,  preceded  the  leaves.  If  the  words  had  been,  '  He  found 
nothing  but  green  figs,  for  it  was  not  the  time  of  ripe  fruit,'  says 
Campbell,  we  should  have  justly  concluded  that  the  latter  clause  was 
meant  as  the  reason  of  what  is  affirmed  in  the  former,  but,  as  they 
stand,  they  do  not  admit  this  interpretation. 

All  will  be  clear,  however,  if  we  consider  the  former  of  these  clau- 
ses as  parenthetical,  and  admit  such  a  sort  oftrajedio  as  is  not  un- 
frequentin  the  ancient  languages,  though  in  translating  into  modern 
ones  a  transposition  ought  to  be  adopted,  to  adapt  such  passages  to 
the  genius  of  those  languages ;  and  such  is  here  employed  by  Dr. 
Campbell.  The  sense  of  the  passage  will  then  be  asfollows:  'He 
came  to  see  if  he  might  find  anything  thereon  (for  it  was  not  yet  the 
time  to  gather  figs) ;  but  he  found  leaves  only  ;  and  he  said,'  &c. 
Similar  inversions  and  trajections  have  been  pointed  out  by  com- 
mentators in  various  other  parts  of  the  New  and  Old  Testaments, 
and  Campbell  particularly  notices  one  in  this  very  gospel  (ch.  xvi. 
3,  4) :  '  They  said,  Who  shall  roll  us  away  the  stone  ?  and  when 
they  looked,  the  stone  was  rolled  away,  for  it  was  very  great' — that 
is,  *  They  said,  who  shall  roll  us  away  the  stone,  for  it  was  very 
great,'  fee. 

The  spiritual  application  of  this  transaction  to  the  case  of  the  Jews, 
is  sufficiently  obvious. 

In  the  East,  the  fig  tree  grows  to  a  considerable  size;  so  large, 
indeed,  as  to  afford  the  wearied  traveller  a  convenient  shelter  from 
the  rays  of  the  sun.  Hasselquist  says,  that  when  travelling  from 
Tiberias  to  Nazareth,  they  refreshed  themselves  under  the  shade 
of  one  of  these  trees,  under  which  was  a  well,  where  a  shepherd  and 
his  herd  had  their  rendezvous,  but  without  either  tent  or  hut.  So 
Moryson,  'Coming  to  a  little  shade  of  fig  trees,  near  Tripoli,  in 
Syria,  we  rested  there  the  heat  of  the  day,  and  fed  upon  such  vict- 
uals as  we  had.'  These  extracts  will  remind  the  scripture  reader  of 
1  Kings  iv.  25 ;  Mic.  iv.  4 ;  Zech.  iii.  10  5  and  John  i.  48,  where 
the  friendly  shade  of  this  tree  is  evidently  referred  to. 


THE  SYCAMORE  TREE,  267 


THE    SYCAMORE    TREE. 

THIS  curious  tree  seems  to  partake  of  the  nature  of  two  distinct 
species,  the  mulberry  and  the  fig,  the  former  in  its  leafj  and  the  lat- 
ter in  its  fruit.  The  Sycamore  is  thus  described  by  Norden  :  '  I 
shall  remark,  that  they  have  in  Egypt  divers  sorts  of  figs ;  but  if 
there  is  any  difference  between  them,  a  particular  kind  differs  still 
more.  I  mean  that  which  the  sycamore  bears.  It  was  upon  a 
tree  of  this  sort  that  Zaccheus  got  up,  to  see  our  Saviour  pass  through 
Jericho.  This  sycamore  is  of  the  height  of  a  beech,  and  bears  its 
fruit  in  a  manner  quite  different  from  other  trees.  It  has  them  on 
the  trunk  itself,  which  shoots  out  little  sprigs,  in  form  of  a  grape- 
stalk,  at  the  end  of  which  grows  the  fruit,  close  to  one  another,  most 
like  bunches  of  grapes.  The  tree  is  always  green,  and  bears  fruit 
several  times  in  the  year,  without  observing  any  certain  seasons,  for 
I  have  seen  some  sycamores  which  had  fruit  two  months  after  oth- 
ers. The  fruit  has  the  figure  and  smell  of  real  figs ;  but  is  inferior 
to  them  in  the  taste,  having  a  disgustful  sweetness.  Its  color  is  a 
yellow,  inclining  to  an  okre,  shadowed  by  a  flesh  color  ;  in  the  in- 
side it  resembles  the  common  fig,  excepting  that  it  has  a  blackish 
coloring,  with  yellow  spots.  This  sort  of  tree  is  pretty  common  in 
Egypt.  The  people,  for  the  greater  part,  live  on  its  fruit.' 

From  1  Kings  x.  27  ;  1  Chron.  xxvii.  28  ;  and  2  Chron.  i.  15,  it 
is  evident,  that  this  tree  was  pretty  common  in  Palestine,  as  well  as 
in  Egypt;  and  from  its  being  joined  with  the  vines  in  Psalm  Ixxviii. 
47,  as  well  as  from  the  circumstance  of  David  appointing  a  particu- 
lar officer  to  superintend  plantations  of  them,  it  seems  to  have  been 
as  much  valued  in  ancient  as  it  is  in  modern  times.  From  Isa.  ix. 
10,  we  find  that  the  timber  of  the  sycamore  was  used  in  the  con- 
struction of  buildings;  and,  notwithstanding  its  porous  and  spongy 
appearance,  it  was,  as  we  learn  from  Dr.  Shaw,  of  extreme  durabil- 
ity. Describing  the  catacombs  and  mummies  of  Egypt,  this  intelli- 
gent writer  states  that  he  found  both  the  mummy  chests,  and  the 
little  square  boxes,  containing  various  figures,  which  are  placed  at 
the  feet  of  each  mummy,  to  be  made  of  sycamore  wood,  and  thus 
preserved  entire  and  incorrupted  for  at  least  three  thousand  years. 

In  Amos  vii.  14,  there  is  a  reference,  no  doubt,  to  the  manner  in 
which  these  trees  are  cultivated,  by  scraping  or  making  incisions  in 
the  fruit. 

In  the  passage  above  cited  from  Nordeu,  that  traveller  adverts  to 
the  circumstance  of  Zaccheus  climbing  up  into  the  sycamore  for 
the  purpose  of  witnessing  our  Lord  pass  through  Jericho  (Luke 
xix.  4) ;  and  Mr.  Bloornfield  remarks,  that  this  mode  of  viewing  an 
object  seems  to  have  been  not  unfrequent,  insomuch  that  it  appears 
to  have  given  rise  to  a  proverbial  expression,  which  he  cites  from 
Libanius. 

The  sycamore  strikes  its  large  diverging  roots  deep  into  the  soil  ; 


^68  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

and  on  this  account,  says  Paxton,  our  Lord  alludes  to  it  as  the  most 
difficult  to  be  rooted  up  and  transferred  to  another  situation.  'If 
ye  had  faith  as  a  grain  of  mustard  seed,  ye  might  say  unto  this 
sycamore  tree,  Be  thou  plucked  up  by  the  root,  and  be  thou  plant- 
ed in  the  sea,  and  it  should  obey  you,'  Luke  xvii  5.  The  extreme 
difficulty  with  which  this  tree  is  transferred  from  its  native  spot  to 
another  situation,  give  the  words  of  our  Lord  a  peculiar  force  and 
beauty.  The  stronger  and  more  diverging  the  root  of  a  tree,  the 
more  difficult  it  must  be  to  pluck  it  up,  and  insert  it  again  so  as  to 
make  it  strike  root  and  grow;  but  far  more  difficult  still  to  plant  it 
in  the  sea,  where  the  soil  is  so  far  below  the  surface,  and  where  the 
restless  billows  are  continually  tossing  it  from  one  side  to  another ; 
yet,  says  our  Lord,  a  task  no  less  difficult  than  this  to  be  accom- 
plished, can  the  man  of  genuine  faith  perform  with  a  word  ;  for  with 
God  nothing  is  impossible,  nothing  difficult  or  laborious.  In  the 
parallel  passage  (Matt.  xvii.  20,)  the  hyperbole  is  varied,  a  moun- 
tain being  substituted  for  the  sycamore-tree.  The  passage  is  }hus 
paraphrased  by  Rosenmuller:  So  long  as  you  trust  in  God  and  me, 
and  are  not  sufficient  in  self-reliance,  you  may  accomplish  the  most 
arduous  labors,  undertaken  for  the  purpose  of  furthering  my  reli- 
gion. 


THE  PALM  TREE. 
THE  PALM    TREE. 


269 


THIS  tree  is  named,  from  its  straight,  upright  growth,  for  which  it 
seems  more  remarkable  than  any  other  tree.  It  sometimes  rises  to 
the  height  of  a  hundred  feet,  and  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  trees 
of  the  vegetable  kingdom.  The  stalks  are  generally  full  of  rugged 
knots,  which  are  the  vestiges  of  the  decayed  leaves :  for  the  trunk 
is  not  solid  like  other  trees,  but  its  centre  is  filled  with  pith,  round 
which  is  a  lough  bark  full  of  strong  fibres  when  young,  which,  as 
the  tree  grows  old.  hardens  and  becomes  ligenous.  To  this  bark 
the  leaves  are  closely  joined,  which  in  the  centre  rise  erect,  but  after 
they  are  advanced  above  the  vagina  that  surrounds  them,  they  ex- 
pand very  wide  on  every  side  of  the  stern,  and  as  the  older  leaves 
decay,  the  stalk  advances  in  height.  The  leaves,  when  the  tree  has 
grown  to  a  size  for  bearing  fruit,  are  six  or  eight  feet  long  ;  are  ve- 
ry broad  when  spread  out,  and  are  used  for  covering  the  tops  of 
houses,  and  simitar  purposes. 
23* 


270  SCRIPTURE   NATURAL   HISTORY. 

The  fruit  which  is  called  *  date,'  grows  below  the  leaves  in  clus- 
ters ;  and  is  of  a  sweet  and  agreeable  taste.  A  considerable  part  of 
the  inhabitants  of  Egypt,  of  Arabia,  and  of  Persia,  subsist  almost 
entirely  on  its  fruit.  They  boast  also  of  its  medicinal  virtues.  Their 
camels  feed  upon  the  date  stone.  From  the  leaves  they  make 
couches,  baskets,  bags,  mats,  and  brushes ;  from  the  branches,  cages 
for  their  poultry,  and  fences  for  their  gardens  ;  from  the  fibres  of  the 
boughs,  thread,  ropes,  and  rigging;  from  the  sap  is  prepared  a 
spirituous  liquor;  and  the  body  of  the  tree  furnishes  fuel :  it  is  even 
said,  that  from  one  variety  of  the  palm  tree,  meal  has  been  extract- 
ed, which  is  found  among  the  fibres  of  the  trunk,  and  has  been  used 
for  food. 

Several  parts  of  the  Holy  Land,  no  Je-'s  than  of  Idumfea,  that  lay 
contiguous  to  it,  are  described  by  the  ancients  to  have  abounded 
with  date  trees.  Judea,  particularly,  is  typified  in  several  coins  of 
Vespasian,  by  a  disconsolate  woman  sitting  under  a  palrn  tree.  It 
may  be  presumed,  therefore,  that  the  palm  tree  was  formerly  much 
cultivated  in  the  Holy  Land. 

In  Deut.  xxxiv.  3,  Jericho  is  called  '  the  city  of  palm  trees  ; '  be- 
cause, as  Josephus,  Strabo,  and  Pliny  have  remarked,  it  anciently 
abounded  with  them :  and  Dr.  Shaw  states  that  there  are  several  of 
them  yet  at  Jericho,  where  there  is  the  convenience  they  require  of 
being  often  watered ;  where  likewise  the  climate  is  warm,  and  the 
soil  sandy,  or  such  as  they  thrive  and  delight  in.  At  Jerusalem, 
Sichem,  and  other  places  to  the  northward,  however,  Dr.  Shaw 
states  that  he  rarely  saw  above  two  or  three  of  them  together ;  and 
even  these,  as  their  fruit  rarely  or  ever  comes  to  maturity,  are  of  no 
further  service,  than  (like  the  palm  tree  of  Deborah)  to  shade  the 
retreats  or  sanctuaries  of  their  Sheikhs,  as  they  might  formerly  have 
been  sufficient  to  supply  the  solemn  processions  with  branches. 
See  John  xii.  13.  From  the  present  condition  and  quality  of  the 
palm  trees  in  this  part  of  the  Holy  Land,  Dr.  Shaw  concludes  that 
they  never  were  either  numerous  or  fruitful  here,  and  that  there- 
fore the  opinion  of  Reland  and  others,  that  Phrenice  is  the  same 
with  '  a  country  of  date  trees'  does  not  appear  probable  ;  for  if  such 
a  useful  and  beneficial  plant  had  ever  been  cultivated  there  to  ad- 
vantage, it  would  have  still  continued  to  be  cultivated,  as  in  Egypt 
and  Barbary. 

It  is  a  singular  fact,  that  these  trees  are  male  and  female,  and  that 
the  fruit  which  is  produced  by  the  latter,  will  be  dry  and  insipid 
without  a  previous  communication  with  the  former. 

The  palm-tree  arrives  at  its  greatest  vigor  about  thirty  years  after 
transplantation,  and  continues  so  seventy  years  afterwards,  bearing 
yearly  fifteen  or  twenty  clusters  of  dates,  each  of  them  weighing 
fifteen  or  twenty  pounds.  After  this  period,  it  begins  gradually  to 
decline,  and  usually  falls  about  the  latter  end  of  its  second  century. 
'To  be  exalted,'  or  'to  flourish  like  the  palm  tree,'  are  as  just  and 
proper  expressions,  suitable  to  the  nature  of  this  pjant,as  'to  spread 
abroad  like  a  cedar,'  Psal.  xcii.  12. 


THE  PALM  TREE.  271 

The  root  of  the  palm  tree  produces  a  great  number  of  suckers, 
which,  spreading  upward,  form  a  kind  of  forest.  It  was  tinder  a 
little  wood  of  this  kind,  as  Calmet  thinks,  that  the  prophetess  Deb- 
orah dwelt  between  Ramah  and  Bethel,  Judg.  iv.  5.  And  probably 
to  this  multiplication  of  the  palm  tree,  as  he  suggests,  the  prophet 
alludes,  when  he  says,  '  The  righteous  shall  flourish  like  a  palm 
tree,'  (Psal.  xcii.  12.  com  p.  Psal.  i.  3,)  rather  than  to  its  towering 
height,  as  Dr.  Shaw  supposes. 

The  palm  is  much  fonder  of  water  than  many  other  trees  of  the 
forest,  and  this  will  account  for  its  flourishing  so  much  better  in  some 
places  than  in  others.  When  Moses  and  his  people,  on  their  way, 
to  the  promised  land  arrived  at  Elim,  they  found  twelve  wells  of 
water  by  the  side  of  seventy  palm  trees,  Exod.  xv.  27. 

The  prophet  Jeremiah,  describing,  in  a  fine  strain  of  irony,  the 
idols  of  the  heathen,  says,  'they  are  upright  as  the  palm  tree,'  (chap. 
ix.  5,)  which  Calmet  takes  to  be  an  allusion  to  their  shape,  remark- 
ing, from  Diodorus  Siculus,  that  the  ancients,  before  the  art  of  carv- 
ing was  carried  to  perfection,  made  their  images  all  of  a  thickness, 
straight,  having  their  hands  hanging  down,  and  close  to  their  sides, 
the  legs  joined  together,  the  eyes  shut,  with  a  very  perpendicular 
attitude,  and  not  unlike  the  body  of  a  palm  tree.  Such  are  the  fig- 
ures of  those  ancient  Egyptian  statues  that  still  remain. 

The  straight  and  lofty  growth  of  the  palm  tree,  its  longevity  and 
great  fecundity,  the  permanency  and  perpetual  flourishing  of  its 
leaves,  and  their  form,  resembling  the  solar  rays,  make  it,  says  Mr. 
Parkhurst,  a  very  proper  emblem  of  the  natural,  and  thence  of  the 
Divine,  light.  Hence  in  the  holy  place  or  sanctuary  of  the  temple 
(the  emblem  of  Christ's  body)  palm  trees  were  engraved  on  the 
walla  and  doors  between  the  coupled  cherubs,  1  Kings  vi.  29,  32, 
35.  Ezek.  xli.  18,  19,  20,  25,  26.  Hence,  at  the  feast  of  Taberna- 
cles branches  of  palm  trees  were  to  be  used,  among  others,  in  mak- 
ing their  booths.  Comp.  Lev.  xxiii.  30.  Neh.  viii.  15.  Palm 
branches  were  also  used  as  emblems  of  victory,  both  by  believers 
and  idolaters.  Believers,  by  bearing  palm  branches  after  a  victory, 
or  in  triumph,  meant  to  acknowledge  the  supreme  Author  of  their 
success  and  prosperity,  and  to  carry  on  their  thoughts  to  the  Divine 
Light,  the  great  Conqueror  over  sin  and  death.  Comp.  1  Mac.  xiii. 
51.  2  Mac.  x.  7.  John  xii.  13.  Rev.  vii.  9. 

In  Cant.  vii.  7,  the  stature  of  the  bride  is  compared  to  a  palm 
tree,  which  conveys  a  pleasing  idea  of  her  gracefulness  and  beauty. 

It  is  probable  that  Tamar,  (Ezek.  xlvii.  19,  &c.)  or  Tadmor,  (t 
Kings  ix.  18)  built  in  the  desert  by  Solomon,  arid  afterwards  called 
Palmyra  by  the  Greeks,  obtained  its  name  from  the  number  of  palm 
trees  which  grew  about  it.  Mr.  Parkhurst  has  a  long  and  interest- 
ing article  on  the  subject,  to  which  the  reader  is  referred. 


272  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

THE    OLIVE    TREE. 


THE  Apostle  Paul  distinguishes  olive  trees  as  of  two  kinds  (Rom 
xi.  24 ;)  the  wild  or  natural, and  those  under  care  and  culture.  The 
cultivated  olive  tree  is  of  a  moderate  height,  its  trunk  knotty,  its 
bark  smooth  and  ash-colored,  and  its  wood  solid  and  of  a  yellowish 
color.  The  leaves  are  oblong,  almost  like  those  of  the  willow,  of  a 
green  color,  dark  on  the  upper  side,  and  white  beneath.  In  the 
month  of  June  it  puts  out  white  flowers  that  grow  in  bunches. 
Each  flower  is  of  one  piece,  widening  upwards,  and  dividing  into 
four  parts.  The  fruit  is  oblong  and  plurnp ;  first  green,  then  pale, 
and  when  quite  ripe,  black.  The  wild  olive  is  smaller  in  all  its 
parts. 

It  does  not  appear  that  Egypt  was  ever  remarkable  for  the  culti- 
vation of  this  tree.  They  abounded,  however,  in  Syria,  and  are  of 
better  quality  there  than  in  any  part  of  the  Levant. 

The  scripture  references  to  the  olive  tree  are  frequent.  The  roy- 
al Psalmist  and  some  of  the  sacred  writers  speak  with  rapture  of  the 
green  olive  tree. 

So,  in  the  fifty-second  Psalm,  David  describes  a  wicked  man,  as 
soon  to  wither  away  and  disappear;  while  he  himself  should  belike 
a  young  vigorous  olive  tree,  which  had  long  to  live  and  to  flourish. 
The  beauty  of  the  olive  tree,  is  alluded  to  in  other  passages  of  scrip- 
ture, and  consisted  in  the  spread  of  its  branches,  and  not  in  its  col- 
or: 'His  branches  shall  spread,  and  his  beauty  shall  be  as  the  olive 
tree,'  Hos.  xiv.  6.  When  the  Psalmist  says,  '  I  shall  be  anointed 
with  green  (Eng.  tr.  fresh]  oil'  (Ps.  xcii.  10),  where  there  is  the  same 
word  in  the  original,  we  cannot  suppose  that  he  means  oil  of  a  green 
color.  The  word  rather  means  precious,  fragrant  oil,  such  as  that 
used  by  princes  in  times  of  prosperity :  fragrant  as  a  field,  which  the 
Lord  has  blessed,  a  flowery  field,  in  all  its  verdure,  to  the  smell  of 
which  Isaac  compared  the  smell  of  the  perfumed  clothes  Jacob  had 
on  when  his  father  blessed  him,  Gen.  xxvii.  27.  It  is  natural  to  sup- 
pose that  most,  if  not  all,  the  oil  that  was  used  for  the  purpose  of 


THE  OLIVE  TREE.  273 

anointing,  was  rendered  more  or  less  fragrant  by  the  infusion  of 
odoriferous  plants  or  substances:  otherwise  it  would  have  hardly 
answered  the  purpose  of  its  adoption  in  those  hot  climates.  On  this 
account  it  became  highly  necessary  to  the  enjoyment  of  life:  and 
hence  the  prophet  threatened  Israel,  that  they  should  tread  olives 
but  not  anoint  themselves  with  oil,  Mic.  vi.  15. 

The  olive  tree,  from  the  effect  of  its  oil,  in  supplying,  relaxing, 
and  preventing  or  mitigating  pain,  seems  to  have  been  adopted  from 
the  earliest  period,  as  an  emblem  of  the  benignity  of  the  Divine 
Nature  ;  and  particularly  after  the  fall,  to  have  represented  the 
goodness  and  placability  of  God  through  Christ;  and  of  the  blessed 
influences  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  in  mollifying  and  healing  our  disor- 
dered nature,  and  in  destroying  or  expelling  from  it  the  poison  of 
the  old  (spiritual)  serpent,  even  as  oil-olive  does  that  of  the  natural 
serpent  or  viper.  Hence  we  see  a  peculiar  propriety  in  the  olive- 
Jeaf  or  branch  being  chosen  by  Divine  Providence  as  a  sign  to  No- 
ah, of  the  abatement  of  the  deluge,  (Gen.  viii.  11);  arid  may  also 
account  for  olive  branches  being  ordered  as  one  of  the  materials  of 
the  booths  at  the  feast  of  Tabernacles  (Neh.  viii.  15),  whence  they 
became  the  emblems  of  peace  to  various  and  distant  nations.  Cap- 
tain Cook  found  that  green  branches  carried  in  the  hand,  or  stuck 
in  the  ground,  were  thus  universally  understood  by  all  the  islanders, 
even  in  the  South  Seas. 

In  the  sacred  writings,  olives  are  sometimes  represented  as  beat- 
en off  the  trees  (Deut.  xxiv.  20,)  and  at  other  times  as  shaken  oft* 
(Isa.  xvii.  6;  ch.  xxiv.  13);  this,  however,  does  not  indicate  an  im- 
provement made  in  aftertimes  on  the  original  mode  of  gathering 
them,  nor  different  methods  of  procedure  by  different  people,  in 
the  same  age  and  country,  who  possessed  olive  ynrds ;  but  rather 
expresses  the  difference  between  the  gathering  the  main  crops  by 
the  owners,  and  the  way  in  which  the  poor  collected  the  few  olive 
berries  that  were  left,  and  which,  by  the  law,  they  were  permitted 
to  take. 

The  usual  method  of  extracting  the  oil  from  olives,  appears  to 
have  been  by  treading  them  with  the  feet,  Deut.  xxxiii.  24,  comp. 
with  Mic.  vi.  15.  Whether  any  previous  preparation  were  neces- 
sary is  uncertain  :  at  present,  mills  are  used  for  this  purpose. 

By  what  an  apt  and  awful  similitude  does  Paul  represent  God's 
rejection  of  the  Jews  and  admission  of  the  Heathen,  by  the  boughs 
of  an  olive  being  lopped  off,  and  the  scion  of  a  young  olive  ingraft- 
ed into  the  old  tree  (Rorn.  xi.  17,  &c.) ;  and  continuing  the  same 
imagery,  how  strictly  does  he  caution  the  Gentiles  against  insolent- 
ly exulting  over  the  mutilated  branches,  and  cherishing  the  vain 
conceit  that  the  boughs  were  lopped  off  merely  that  they  might  be 
ingrafted  ;  for,  if  God  spared  not  the  native  branches,  they  had 
greater  reason  to  fear  lest  he  would  not  spare  them:  that  they 
should  remember  that  the  Jews  through  their  wilful  disbelief  of 
Christianity  were  cut  off,  and  that  they,  the  Gentiles,  if  they  dis- 
graced their  religion,  would  in  like  manner  forfeit  the  Divine  favor, 


274  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

and  their  present  flourishing  branches  be  also  cut  down.  To  in- 
spire the  Gentile  Christians  with  humility,  he  concludes  with  as- 
suring them  that  the  Jewish  nation,  though  they  had  experienced 
this  severity  ot  God,  as  he  calls  it,  were  not  totally  forsaken  of  the 
Almighty :  that  the  branches,  though  cut  down,  and  robbed  of 
their  ancient  honors,  were  not  abandoned  to  perish  ;  when  the  Jews 
returned  from  their  infidelity  they  would  be  ingrafted  ;  an  Omnip- 
otent hand  was  still  able  to  reinsert  them  into  their  original  stock. 

From  I  Kings  vi.  23,  tt  seq.  we  learn,  that  olive  wood  was  used 
in  the  building  of*  the  temple,  and  that,  too,  in  some  of  its  most 
tasteful  and  decorative  parts.  It  seems  still  to  be  regarded  as  'a 
fancy  wood'  in  the  East,  for  Lady  Mary  Wortley  Montague  states, 
that  she  found  the  winter  apartments  of  the  Rahya's  palace,  at 
Adrianople,  wainscotted  with  inlaid  work  of  mother  of  pearl,  ivory 
of  different  colors,  and  olive  wood,  like  the  littie  boxes  brought 
thence. 


THE  POMEGRANATE. 

THE  Pomegraaate,  ripens  in  Barbary,  in  the  month  of  August. 
It  was  formerly  one  of  the  most  delicate  fruits  of  tho  East  (Numb. 
xiii.  23;  eh.  xx.  5;  Deut.  viii.  8;  Cant.  iv.  13);  the  orange,  the 
apricot,  the  peach,  and  the  nectarine,  not  havjng  made  their  pro- 
gress so  early  to  the  westward.  The  following  is  Dr.  Woodville's 
description  of  the  tree. 

*  It  rises  several  feet  in  height,  is  covered  with  a  brownish  bark, 
and  divided  into  many  small  branches,  which  are  armed  with 
spines;  the  leaves  are  oblong,  or  lance-shaped,  pointed,  veined,  of 
a  deep  green  color,  and  placed  upon  short  foot-stalks  ;  the  flowers 
are  large,  of  a  rich  scarlet  color,  and  stand  at  the  end  of  the  young 
branches.  The  fruit  is  about  the  size  of  an  orange,  and  crowned 
with  the  fine  teeth  of  the  calyx :  the  rind  is  thick  and  tough,  exter- 
nally reddish,  internally  yellowish,  filled  with  a  red  succulent  pulp, 
contained  in  transparent  cellular  membranes,  and  included  in  nine 
cells,  within  which  numerous  oblong  angular  seeds  are  also  lodged,, 
This  shrubby  tree  is  a  native  of  Spain,  Italy,  Barbary,  &c.  Some 
of  them  rise  to  the  height  of  eighteen  or  twenty  feet.' 

The  pomegranate  is  chiefly  valued  for  its  fruit,  which  has  the 
general  qualities  of  other  summer  fruits,  allaying  heat  and  quench- 
ing thirst.  The  high  estimation  in  which  it  was  held  by  the  peo- 
ple of  Israel  may  be  inferred  from  its  being  one  of  the  three  kinds 
of  fruit  brought  by  the  spies  from  Eshol  to  Moses  and  the  congre- 
gation in  wilderness  (Numb.  xiii.  23,  chap.  xx.  5),  and  from  its  be- 
ing specified  by  that  rebellious  people  as  one  of  the  greatest  luxu- 
ries which  they  enjoyed  in  Egypt,  and  the  want  of  which  they  felt 
so  severely  in  the  sandy  desert.  The  pomegranate,  classed  by 


THE  VINE.  275 

Moses  with  wheat  and  barley,  wines  and  figs,  olive  oil  and  honey, 
was,  in  his  account,  one  principal  recommendation  of  the  promised 
land,  Dent.  viii.  8. 

In  Cant.  viii.  2,  the  bride  proposes  to  make  for  her  beloved  a 
beverage  of  wine  mixed  with  the  juice  of  pomegranates;  '  I  would 
cause  thee  to  drink  of  spiced  wine,  of  the  juice  of  my  pomegran- 
ate.' Russel  observes  that  there  are  three  kinds  of  pomegranates 
at  Aleppo ;  the  sour,  the  sweet,  and  another  between  the  two ;  and 
that  the  inhabitants  give  a  grateful  acidity  to  their  sauces,  by  pome- 
granate or  lemon-juice.  Mr.  Harmer  thinks  it  highly  probable,  that 
in  the  time  of  the  most  remote  antiquity,  pomegranate-juice  was 
used  in  those  countries  where  lemon-juice  is  now  used,  with  their 
meat,  and  in  their  drinks;  and  that  it  was  not  till  afterwards  that 
lemons  came  among  them.  Otherwise  he  is  at  a  loss  to  account 
for  the  mention  of  pomegranates  in  describing  the  fruitfulness  of 
the  Holy  Land,  Deut.  viii.  7,  8  ;  Numb.  xx.  5.  They  would  not  now, 
he  thinks,  occur  in  such  descriptions ;  the  juice  of  lemons  and 
oranges  having  almost  superseded  the  use  of  that,  of  pomegranates. 

The  Hebrew  and  Greek  names  of  this  tree  being  expressive  of 
the  strong  projection  or  reflection  of  light,  either  from  the  fruit,  or 
from  the  star-like  flower,  at  its  extremity,  Parkhurst  conceives  that 
those  brazen  pomegranates  which  Solomon  placed  in  the  net-work 
over  the  crowns  on  the  top  of  the  two  brazen  pillars  (1  Kings  vii.  18, 
20,  42  ;  2  Chron.  iv.  13  ;  Jer.  lii.22,23),  were  intended  to  represent 
the  stars  strongly  reflecting  light  on  the  earth  and  planets.  So  the 
artificial  pomegranates  ordered  to  be  fixed  on  the  skirt  of  Aaron's 
robe  (Exod.  xxviii.  33,  34)  were,  he  thinks,  to  represent  those  spir- 
itual stars,  even  the  children  of  God,  who,  by  a  light  derived  from 
their  great  High  Priest,  shine  as  lights  or  luminaries  in  the  world 
(Phil.  ii.  15.  comp.  Matt.  v.  14,  16;  Eph.  v.  8  ;  1  Thess.  v.  5  ;  Rev. 
i.  16 — 20),  and  who,  like  the  bells  which  accompanied  the  pome- 
granates, are  continually  to  proclaim  the  perfection  of  Him  who 
called  them  out  of  darkness  into  his  marvellous  light,  1  Pet.  ii.  2. 


THE   VINE. 

OF  this  valuable  and  well  known  plant  there  are  several  species, 
and  there  are  many  references  to  it  in  the  sacred  writings.  It 
grew  plentifully  in  Palestine,  and  was  particularly  fine  in  some  of 
the  districts.  The  grapes  of  Egypt  being  particularly  small,  we 
may  easily  conceive  of  the  surprise  which  was  occasioned  to  the 
Israelites  by  witnessing  the  bunch  of  grapes  brought  by  the  spies 
to  the  camp,  from  the  valley  of  Eschol,  Numb.  xiii.  24.  The  ac- 
count of  Mose?,  however,  is  confirmed  by  the  testimony  cf  several 
travellers.  Doubdan  assures  us,  that  in  the  valley  of  Eschol  were 


276  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

bunches  of  grapes  often  and  twelve  pounds.  Forster  tells  us,  that 
he  was  informed  by  a  Religious,  who  had  lived  many  years  in  Pa- 
lestine, that  there  were  bunches  of  grapes  in  the  valley  of  Hebron, 
so  large  that  two  men  could  scarcely  carry  one.  Comp.  Numb, 
xiii.  24.  And  Rosenmuller  says, «  Though  the  Mahoniedan  religion 
does  not  favor  the  cultivation  of  the  vine,  there  is  no  want  of  vine- 
yards in  Palestine.  Besides  the  large  quantities  of  grapes  and  rai- 
sins which  are  daily  sent  to  the  markets  of  Jerusalem  and  other 
neighboring  places,  Hebron  alone,  in  the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  annually  sent  three  hundred  camel  loads,  that  is,  nearly 
three  hundred  thousand  weight  of  grape  juice,  or  honey  of  raisins, 
to  Egypt.' 

To  show  the  abundance  of  vines  which  should  fall  to  the  lot  of 
Judah  in  the  partition  of  tlie  promised  land,  Jacob  says  of  his 
tribe,  that  he  shall  be  found — 

Binding  his  colt  to  the  vine, 

And  to  the  choice  vine,  the  foal  of  his  ass. 

Washing  his  garments  in  wine, 

His  clothes  in  the  blood  of  the  grape. 

Gen.  xlix.  11. 

It  has  been  shown  by  Paxton,  that  in  some  parts  of  Persia,  it  was 
formerly  their  custom  to  turn  the  cattle  into  the  vineyards  after  the 
vintage,  to  browse  on  the  vines,  some  of  which  are  so  large  that  a 
man  can  hardly  compass  their  trunk  in  his  arms.  These  facts  clear- 
ly show,  that  according  to  the  prediction  of  Jacob,  the  ass  might  be 
securely  bound  to  the  vine,  and  without  damaging  the  tree  by  brow- 
sing on  its  leaves  and  branches.  The  same  custom  appears,  by  the 
narratives  of  several  travellers,  to  have  generally  prevailed  in  Lesser 
Asia.  Chandler  observed,  that  in  the  vineyards  around  Smyrna, 
the  leaves  of  the  vines  were  decayed  or  stripped  by  the  camels,  or 
herds  of  goats,  which  are  permitted  to  browse  upon  them,  after  the 
vintage.  When  he  left  Smyrna  on  the  30th  September,  the  vineyards 
were  already  bare ;  but  when  he  arrived  at  Phygella,  on  the  5th  or 
6th  of  October,  he  found  its  territory  still  green  with  vines;  which 
is  a  proof  that  the  vineyards  at  Smyrna  must  have  been  stripped  by 
the  cattle,  which  delight  to  feed  upon  the  foliage. 

This  custom  furnishes  a  satisfactory  reason  for  a  regulation  in  the 
laws  of  Moses,  the  meaning  of  which  has  been  very  imperfectly  un- 
derstood. A  man  was  prohibited  from  introducing  his  beast  into 
the  vineyard  of  his  neighbor.  The  reason  was,  it  was  destructive 
to  the  vineyard  before  the  fruit  was  gathered  ;  and  after  the  vintage, 
it  was  still  a  serious  injury,  because  it  deprived  the  owner  of  the 
fodder  which  was  most  grateful  to  his  flocks  and  herds,  and  per- 
haps absolutely  requisite  for  their  subsistence  during  the  winter. 
These  things  considered,  we  discern  in  this  enactment,  the  justice, 
wisdom,  and  kindness  of  the  great  Legislator. 

The  law  enjoined  that  he  who  planted  a  vine  should  not  eat  of 
the  produce  of  it  before  the  fifth  year,  Lev.  xix.  24,  25.  Nor  did 
they  gather  their  grapes  on  the  seventh  year :  the  fruit  was  then  left 


THE  VINE.  277 

for  the  poor,  the  orphan,  and  the  stranger.  A  traveller  was  permit- 
ted to  gather  and  cat  grapes  in  a  vineyard,  as  he  passed  along,  but 
was  not  permitted  to  carry  any  away.  Deut.  xxiii.  24. 

In  John  xv.  our  Lord  declares  himself  to  be  the  *  true  vine.' 
Doddridge  has  supposed  that  the  idea  might  be  suggested  by  the 
sight  of  a  vine,  either  from  a  window,  or  in  some  court  by  the  side 
of  the  house;  but  this  is  controverted  by  Harmer,  who  remarks, 
that  there  were  no  gardens  in  Jerusalem,  and  that  it  is  not  likely 
there  were  vines  about  the  sides  of  the  houses.  Harmer's  assertion, 
however,  is  set  aside  by  Dr.  Russell,  who  states  that  it  is  very  com- 
mon to  cover  the  stairs  leading  to  the  upper  apartments  of  the  harem 
with  vines.  This  fully  explains  the  beautiful  metaphor  in  Psalm 
cxxviii. — *  Thy  wife  shall  be  as  a  fruitful  vine  by  the  sides  of  thine 
house.' — with*  which  Mr.  Harmer  is  so  much  embarrassed.  But 
whether  such  a  vine  gave  rise  to  our  Saviour's  discourse,  is  a  mat- 
ter of  great  doubt. 

In  the  TEMPLE  at  Jerusalem,  above  and  around  the  gate  seventy 
cubits  high,  which  led  from  the  porch  to  the  holy  place,  a  richly 
carved  vine  was  extended,  as  a  border  and  decoration.  The 
branches,  tendrils,  and  leaves,  were  of  the  finest  gold :  the  stalks  of 
the  hunches  were  of  the  length  of  the  human  form,  and  the  bunch- 
es hanging  upon  them  were  of  costly  jewels.  Herod  first  placed  it 
there;  rich  and  patriotic  Jews  from  time  to  time  added  to  its  em- 
bellishment, one  contributing  a  new  grape,  another  a  leaf,  and  a 
third  even  a  bunch  of  the  same  precious  materials.  If  to  compute 
its  value  at  more  than  12,000,000  of  dollars  be  an  exaggeration,  it  is 
nevertheless  indisputable  that  this  vine  must  have  had  an  uncommon 
importance  and  a  sacred  meaning  in  the  eyes  of  the  Jews.  With 
what  majestic  splendor  must  it  have  likewise  appeared  in  the  even- 
ing, when  it  was  illuminated  by  tapers! 

If  then  Jesus  in  the  evening,  after  having  celebrated  the  Passover, 
again  betook  himself  to  the  temple  with  his  disciples,  what  is  more 
natural,  than,  as  they  wandered  in  it  to  and  fro,  that  above  every- 
thing this  vine,  blazing  with  gold  and  jewels,  should  have  attracted 
their  attention  ; — that,  rivetted  by  the  gorgeous  magnificence  of  the 
sight,  they  were  absorbed  in  wonder  and  contemplation  respecting 
the  real  import  of  this  work  of  art?  Let  us  now  conceive,  that  Je- 
sus at  this  moment,  referring  to  this  vine,  said  to  his  disciples, '  I  am 
the  true  vine' — how  correct  and  striking  must  his  words  then  have 
appeared! — How  clearly  and  determinately  must  then  the  import  of 
them  have  been  seen  ! 

The  Jews  accounted  the  vine  the  most  noble  of  plants,  and  a  type 
of  all  that  was  excellent,  powerful,  fruitful,  and  fortunate.  The 
prophets,  therefore,  compared  the  Jewish  nation  and  the  Jewish 
church  to  a  great  vine,  adorned  with  beautiful  fruit,  planted,  tended, 
and  guarded  by  God,  Jer.  ii.  21.  Ezek.  xix.  10  Seq.  Psal.  Ixxx.  9, 
15  Seq.  God  was  the  DRESSER  OF  THE  VINEYARD,  Israel  was  the 
VINEYARD  and  VINE,  Isa.  v.  1  Seq.  xxvii.  2  Seq.  Hos.  x.  1. — every 
true  Israelite,  especially  the  heads  and  chiefs  of  the  people,  were  th« 


278  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

branches,  Isa.  xvi.  8.  Jer.  v.  10.— the  might  and  power  of  the  nation 
were  the  full  swelling  bunches.  The  basis  of  the  metaphor  was  ever 
the  idea,  that '  Israel  is  the  first,  the  most  holy  nation  on  the  earth, 
— that  God  himself  is  the  founder  and  protector  of  it.' 

The  curiously- wrought  and  splendid  vine,  above  described,  which 
Herod  introduced  into  the  temple,  was  a  symbol  of  this  peculiar, 
proximate,  and  joyful  relation  in  which  God  stood  to  Israel.  The 
patriotic  Jews,  as  they  looked  at  it,  thought  with  joy  and  pride  of 
the  high  dignity  and  pre-eminence  of  the  people.  To  go  out  and 
to  enttr  under  the  vine,  was  a  phrase,  by  which  they  denoted  a  peace- 
ful, fortunate,  and  contented  life.  Hence  this  ornament,  extended  over 
the  entrance  to  the  holy  place,  was  as  striking  and  full  of  meaning, 
as  it  was  edifying  to  the  Jews :  hence  each  contributed  his  own  to 
increase  its  magnificence,  and  thus  authenticate  himself  as  a  worthy 
member  of  this  holy  and  glorious  nation. 

Jesus  having  thus  depicted  himself  as  the  individual  who  was 
prefigured  by  this  vine,  the  ideas,  which  he  would  express  by  this 
parable,  could  not  have  been  misunderstood. 

This  parable,  therefore,  more  immediately  concerns  THE  APOS- 
TLES. Jesus  does  not  merely  represent  himself  under  the  metaphor 
of  a  vine,  in  the  more  confined  sense  of  A  TEACHER,  but  in  the  more 
exalted  and  comprehensive  one  of  THE  MESSIAH  sent  from  heaven 
TO  FOUND  A  NEW  KINGDOM  OF  GOD.  He  considers  his  apostles  as 
THE  BRANCHES  in  Him, — not  merely  as  DISCIPLES  and  FRIENDS,  but 
as  DEPUTIES  and  ASSISTANTS. chosen  and  called  by  Him,  TO  FOUND 
AND  EXTEND  HIS  KINGDOM.  The  CONNEXION  which  he  would  main- 
tain between  himself  and  them,  consists  not  merely  in  LOVE  and 

FRIENDSHIP,    but    in     THE     TRUE    EXECUTION     OF     HIS     COMMANDS, 

grounded  on  a  faith  in  his  exalted  nature  and  dignity.  The  FRUITS 
which  he  expects  from  them,  are  not  merely  FAITH  and  VIRTUE, 
which  are  the  concerns  of  all  Christians,  but  important  SERVICES  IN 
THE  EXTENSION  OF  CHRISTIANITY.  And  he  INCITES  them  to  per- 
form  them  by  a  promise  of  Divine  grace  and  assistance. 

The  expression  of  '  sitting  every  man  under  his  own  vine,'  (1 
Kings  iv.  25.  Mic.  iv.  4)  probably  alludes  to  the  delightful  Eastern 
arbors,  which  were  partly  composed  of  vines.  Norden  speaks  of 
vine-arbors  as  being  common  in  the  Egyptian  gardens ;  and  the 
Prasnestine  pavement  in  Shaw's  Travels,  gives  us  the  figure  of  an 
ancient  one.  The  expression  is  intended  to  refer  to  a  time  of  pub- 
lic tranquillity  and  of  profound  peace. 

In  the  passage  of  Isaiah  to  which  we  just  now  referred,  there  is 
mention  made  of  a  wild  grape,  which  requires  notice;  '  And  he 
looked  that  it  should  bring  forth  grapes,  and  it  brought  forth  wild 
grapes,'  Isa.  v.  2.  Jeremiah  uses  the  same  image,  and  applies  it  to 
the  same  purpose,  in  an  elegant  paraphrase  of  this  part  of  Isaiah's 
parable,  in  his  flowing  and  plaintive  manner — l  But  I  planted  thee 
a  sorek,  a  scion  perfectly  genuine ;  how  then  art  thou  changed,  and 
become  to  me  the  degenerate  shoots  of  the  strange  vine ! '  Chap, 
ii.  21.  By  these  wild  grapes,  or  poisonous  berries,  we  must  under- 


THE  VINE.  279 

stand  not  merely  useless,  unprofitable  grapes,  such  as  wild  grapes  ; 
but  grapes  offensive  to  the  smell,  noxious,  poisonous.  By  the  force 
and  intent  of  the  allegory,  to  good  grapes  ought  to  be  opposed  fruit 
of  a  dangerous  and  pernicious  quality ;  as  in  the  explication  of  it,  to 
judgment  is  opposed  tyranny,  and  to  righteousness  oppression. 
Gephen,  the  vine,  is  a  common  name  or  genus,  including  several 
species  under  it ;  and  Moses,  to  distinguish  the  true  vine,  or  that 
from  which  wine  is  made,  from  the  rest,  c&\\8\\.ge,phenhayayin;  the 
wine-vine,  Numbers  vi.  4.  Some  of  the  other  sorts  were  of  a  poi- 
sonous quality  as  appears  from  the  story  related  among  the  mirac- 
ulous acts  of  Elisha:  '  And  he  found  a  field-vine,  and  he  gathered 
from  it  wild  fruit,  his  lap  full ;  and  he  went  and  shred  them  into 
the  pot  of  pottage,  for  they  knew  them  not.  And  they  poured  it 
out  for  the  men  to  eat ;  and  it  came  to  pass  as  they  were  eating  of 
the  pottage,  that  they  cried  out  and  said,  There  is  death  in  the  pot, 
O  man  of  God  !  and  they  could  not  eat  of  it.  And  he  said,  Bring 
meal ;  and  he  threw  it  into  the  pot.  And  he  said,  Pour  out  for  the 
people,  that  they  may  eat.  And  there  was  nothing  hurtful  in  the 
pot,'  2  Kings  iv.  39-41. 

From  some  such  poisonous  sorts  of  the  grape  kind,  Moses  has 
taken  those  strong  and  highly  poetical  images  with  which  he  has 
set  forth  the  future  corruption  and  extreme  degeneracy  of  the  Israel- 
ites, in  an  allegory  which  has  a  near  relation,  both  in  its  subject 
and  imagery,  to  this  of  Isaiah,  Deut.  xxxii.  32,  33 — 

'  Their  vine  is  from  the  vine  of  Sodom, 
And  from  the  fields  of  Gomorrah ; 
Their  grapes  are  grapes  of  gall ; 
Their  clusters  are  bitter  : 
Their  wine  is  the  poison  of  dragons, 
And  the  cruel  venom  of  aspics.' 

The  Jews  planted  their  vineyards  most  commonly  on  the  south 
side  of  a  hill  or  mountain,  the  stones  being  gathered  out,  and  the 
space  hedged  round  with  thorns,  or  walled,  Isa.  v.  1 — 6.  Psal.  Ixxx. 
and  Matt.  xxi.  33.  A  good  vineyard  consisted  of  a  thousand  vines, 
and  produced  a  rent  of  a  thousand  sttverlings,  or  shekels  of  silver, 
Isa.  vii.  23.  It  required  two  hundred  more  to  pay  the  dressers,  Cant, 
viii.  11, 12.  In  these,  the  keepers  and  vine-dressers  labored,  dig- 
ging, planting,  pruning,  and  propping  the  yines,  gathering  the  grapes 
and  making  wine.  This  was  a  laborious  task,  and  was  often  reck- 
oned a  base  one,  2  Kings  xxv.  12.  Cant.  i.  6.  Isa.  xli.  5.  The  vines 
with  the  tender  grapes  gave  a  good  smell  early  in  the  spring. 

The  vintage  followed  the  wheat  harvest  and  the  thrashing,  (Lev. 
xxxvi.  5 ;  Amos  ix.  13)  about  June  or  July,  when  the  clusters  of  the 
grapes  were  gathered  with  a  sickle,  and  put  into  baskets  (Jer.  vi. 
9),  carried  and  thrown  into  the  wine-vat,  or  wine-press,  where  they 
were  probably  first  trodden  by  men,  a  ad  then  pressed,  Rev.  xiv.  18 
— 20.  It  is  mentioned  as  a  mark  of  the  great  work  and  power  of 
the  Messiah,  that  he  had  trodden  the  figurative  wine-press  alone , 
and  of  the  people  there  was  none  with  him,  Isa.  Ixiii.  3.  Rev.  xix. 


280  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

35.    The  vintage  was  a  season  of  great  mirth.    Of  the  juice  of  the 
squeezed  grapes  were  formed  wine  and  vinegar. 

The  wines  of  Canaan,  being  very  heady,  were  generally  mixed 
with  water  for  common  use,  as  among  the  Italians  ;  and  they  some- 
times scented  them  with  frankincense,  myrrh,  calamus  and  other 
spices  (Prov.  ix.  2,  5;  Cant.  viii.  2);  they  also  scented  them  with 
pomegranates,  or  made  wine  of  their  juice,  as  we  do  of  the  juice  of 
currants,  gooseberries,  &c.  fermented  with  sugar.  Wine  is  best 
when  old,  and  on  the  lees,  the  dregs  having  sunk  to  the  bottom,  Isa. 
xxv.  6.  Sweet  wine  is  that  which  is  made  from  th«  grapes  fully 
ripe,  Isa.  xlix.  26.  The  Israelites  had  two  kinds  of  vinegar ;  the  one 
was  a  weak  wine,  which  was  used  for  their  common  drink  in  the 
harvest  field  (Ruthii.  14),  as  the  Spaniards  and  Italians  still  do; 
and  it  was  probably  of  this  that  Solomon  was  to  furnish  twenty 
thousand  baths  to  Hiram,  for  his  servants,  the  hewers  that  cut  tim- 
ber in  Lebanon,  2  Chron.  ii.  10.  The  other  had  a  sharp  acid  taste, 
li^e  ours  ;  and  thence  Solomon  hints,  that  a  sluggard  hurts  and  vexes 
such  as  employ  him  in  business ;  as  vinegar  is  disagreeable  to  the 
teeth,  and  smoke  to  the  eyes  (Prov.  x.  26) ;  and  as  vinegar  poured 
upon  nitre  spoils  its  virtue,  so  he  that  singeth  songs  to  a  heavy  heart, 
does  but  add  to  his  .grief,  chap.  xxv.  20.  The  poor  were  allowed 
to  glean  grapes,  as  well  as  corn,  and  other  articles  (Lev.  xix.  10. 
Deut.  xxiv.  21.  Isa.  iii.  14 ;  chap.  xvii.  6 ;  xxvi.  13;  Micah  vii.  1 ) ;  and 
we  learn  that  the  gleaning  of  the  grapes  of  Ephraim  was  better  than 
the  vintage  of  Abiezer;  Judg.  viii.  2. 

The  vessels  in  which  the  vine  was  kept,  were  probably,  for  the 
most  part,  bottles,  which  were  usually  made  of  leather,  or  goat- 
skins, firmly  sewed  and  pitched  together.  The  Arabs  pull  the  skin 
off  goats  in  the  same  manner  tha$  we  do  from  rabbits,  and  sew  up 
the  places  where  the  legs  and  tail  were  cut  off,  leaving  one  for  the 
neck  of  the  bottle,  to  pour  from ;  and  in  such  bags  they  put  up  and 
carry,  not  only  their  liquors,  but  dry  things  which  are  not  apt  to  be 
broken ;  by  which  means  they  are  well  preserved  from  wet,  dust,  or 
insects.  These  would  in  lime  crack  and  wear  out.  Hence,  when 
the  Gibeonites  came  to  Joshua,  pretending  that  they  came  from  a 
far  country,  amongst  other  things  they  brought  wine  bottles,  old  and 
rent,  and  bound  up  where  they  had  leaked,  Josh.  ix.  4,  13.  Thus, 
too,  it  was  not  expedient  to  put  new  wine  into  old  bottles,  because 
the  fermentation  of  it  would  break  or  crack  the  bottles.  Matt.  ix.  17. 
And  thus  David  complains,  that  he  had  become  like  a  bottle  in  the 
smoko ;  that  is,  a  bottle  dried,  and  cracked,  and  worn  out,  and  un- 
fit for  service,  Psal.  cxix.  83.  These  bottles  were  probably  of  va- 
rious size's,  and  sometimes  very  large ;  for  when  Abigail  went  to 
meet  David  and  his  400  men,  and  took  a  present  to  pacify  and  sup- 
ply him,  200  loaves  and  five  sheep  ready  dressed,  &c.,  she  took  on- 
ly two  bottles  of  wine  (I  Sam.  xxv.  18);  a  very  disproportionate 
quantity,  unless  the  bottles  were  large.  But  the  Israelites  had  bot- 
tles likewise  made  by  the  potters.  See  Isa.  xxx.  14,  marg.  Jer.  xix. 
1,  10  ;  ch.  xlviii.  12.  We  hear  also  of  vessels  called  barrels.  That 


THE  VINE.  281 

of  the  widow,  in  which  her  meal  was  held,  (1  Kings  xrii.  12, 14) 
was  not,  probably,  very  large  ;  but  those  four  in  which  the  water 
was  brought  up  from  the  sea,  at  the  bottom  of  mount  Carmel,  to 
pour  upon  Elijah's  sacrifice  and  altar,  must  have  been  large,  1  Kings 
xviii.  33.  We  read  also  of  the  water-jugs,  or  jars  of  stone,  of  con- 
siderable size,  into  which  our  Lord  caused  the  water  to  be  con- 
verted into  wine,  John  ii.  6. 

Grapes  were  also  dried  into  raisins.  A  part  of  Abigail's  present 
to  David,  was  100  clusters  of  raisins  (1  Sam.  xxv.  18);  and  when 
Ziba  met  David,  his  present  contained  the  same  quantity,  2  Sam. 
xvi.  1 ;  1  Sam.  xxx.  12 ;  1  Chron.  xii.  40. 


24* 


SECTION  II. 
AROMATIC    TREES. 

THE    CEDAR. 

'  The  forest  of  cedars '  on  the  farnsd  mountain  of  Lebanon,  which 
once  furnished  the  sacred  writers  with  so  many  beautiful  images, 
has  now  almost  wholly  disappeared.  Some  few  trees  remain,  to  re- 
mind us  of  their  former  glory,  (Isa.  Ix.  13.)  and  to  teach  us  the  mu- 
tability of  all  sublunary  things. 

Burckhardt,  the  celebrated  traveller,  describes  these  ancient 
inhabitants  of  the  forest,  which  are  among  the  chief  objects 
of  the  traveller's  curiosity,  in  the  following  terms:  'They  stand 
on  uneven  ground,  and  form  a  small  wood.  Of  the  oldest  and 
best  looking  trees,  I  counted  eleven  or  twelve :  twenty-five  very 
large  ones ;  about  fifty  of  middling  size ;  and  more  than  three 
hundred  smaller  and  younger  ones.  The  older  trees  are  distin- 
guished, by  having  the  foliage  and  small  branches  at  the  top  only, 
and  by  four,  five,  or  even  seven  trunks  springing  from  one  base ; 
the  branches  and  foliage  of  the  others  were  lower,  but  I  saw  none 
whose  leaves  touched  the  ground,  like  those  in  Kevv  Gardens. 
The  trunks  of  the  old  trees  are  covered  with  the  names  of  travel- 
lers and  other  persons  who  have  visited  them :  I  saw  a  date  of  the 
seventeenth  century.  The  trunks  of  the  oldest  trees  seem  to  be 
quite  dead:  the  wood  is  of  a  grey  tint. 

The  cedar  is  a  large  majestic  tree,  rising  to  the  height  of  thirty 
or  forty  yards  ;  and  some  of  them  are  from  thirty -five  to  forty  feet 
in  girth.  It  is  a  beautiful  evergreen,  possessing  leaves  something 
like  those  of  the  rosemary,  and  distils  a  kind  of  gum,  to  which  va- 
rious qualities  are  attributed.  Le  Bruyn  says,  the  leaves  of  the 
tree  point  upward,  and  the  fruit  hangs  downward :  it  grows  like 
cones  of  the  pine  tree,  but  is  longer,  harder,  and  fuller,  and  not  ea- 
sily separated  from  the  stalk.  It  contains  a  seed,  like  that  of  the 
cypress  tree. 

The  wood  of  the  cedar  is  very  valuable;  it  possesses  a  strong 
aromatic  smell,  arid  is  reputed  to  be  incorruptible. — The  ark  of  the 
covenant,  and  many  parts  of  Solomon's  temple,  were  constructed 
of  it. 

The  cedar  of  Lebanon,  says  Paxton,  is  one  of  the  natural  images 
which  frequently  occur  in  the  poetical  style  of  the  prophets  ;  and 
is  appropriated  to  denote  kings,  princes,  and  potentates  of  the  high- 
est rank.  Thus,  the  prophet  Isaiah,  in  denouncing  the  judgment 


THE  CEDAft.  283 

of  God  upon  the  proud  and  arrogant,  declares  that  *  the  day  of  the 
Lord  of  Hosts  shall  be  upon  all  the  cedars  of  Lebanon  that  are 
high  and  lifted  up,  and  upon  all  the  oaks  of  Bashan,'  ch.  ii.  13, 
The  king  of  Israel  used  the  same  figure  in  his  reply  to  the  chal- 
lenge of  the  king  of  Judah :  *  The  thistle  that  was  in  Lebanon, 
sent  to  the  cedar  that  was  in  Lebanon,  saying,  Give  thy  daughter 
to  my  son  to  wife;  and  there  passed  by  a  wild  beast  that  was  in, 
Lebanon,  and  trod  down  the  thistle,'  2  Kings,  xiv.  9.  The  spirit- 
ual prosperity  of  the  righteous  man  is  compared,  by  the  Psalmist, 
to  the  same  noble  plant :  '  The  righteous  shall  flourish  as  the  palm 
tree ;  he  shall  grow  as  the  cedar  in  Lebanon.'  To  break  the  ce- 
dars, and  to  shake  the  enormous  mass  on  which  they  grow,  are  the 
figures  that  David  selects  to  express  the  awful  majesty  and  infinite 
power  of  Jehovah  :  'The  voice  of  the  Lord  is  powerful :  the  voice 
of  the  Lord  is  full  of  majesty :  the  voice  of  the  Lord  breaketh  the 
cedars;  yea,the  Lord  breaketh  the  cedars  of  Lebanon.  He  makes 
them  also  to  skip  like  a  calf;  Lebanon  and  Sirion  like  a  young 
unicorn,'  Ps.  xxix.  4.  This  description  of  the  Divine  majesty  and 
power,  possesses  a  character  of  awful  sublimity,  which  is  almost 
unequalled,  even  in  the  page  of  inspiration.  Jehovah  has  only  to 
speak,  and  the  cedar,  which  braves  the  fierce  winds  of  heaven,  is 
broken, — even  the  cedar  of  Lebanon,  every  arm  of  which  rivals  the 
size  of  a  tree:  he  has  only  to  speak,  and  the  enormous  mass  of 
matter  on  which  it  grows  shakes  to  its  foundation,  till,  extensive, 
and  lofty,  and  ponderous  as  it  is,  it  leaps  like  the  young  of  the  herd 
in  their  joyous  frolics,  and  skips  like  the  young  unicorn,  the  swiftest 
of  the  four-footed  race.  The  countless  number  of  these  trees  in  the 
days  of  Solomon,  and  their  prodigious  bulk,  must  be  recollected, 
in  order  to  feel  the  force  of  that  sublime  declaration  of  the  prophet : 
'  Lebanon  is  not  sufficient  to  burn,  nor  the  beasts  thereof  sufficient 
for  a  burnt-offering,'  Isa.  xl.  16.  Though  the  trembling  sinner 
were  to  make  choice  of  Lebanon  for  the  altar,  and  were  to  cut  down 
all  its  forests  to  form  the  fuel ;  though  the  fragance  ofthis  fuel,  with 
all  its  odoriferous  gums,  were  the  incense;  the  wine  of  Lebanon 
pressed  from  all  its  vineyards,  the  libation ;  and  all  its  beasts,  the  pro- 
pitiatory sacrifice ;  all  would  prove  insufficient  to  make  atonement  for 
the  sins  of  men ;  would  be  regarded  as  nothing  in  the  eyes  of  the 
Supreme  Judge,  for  the  expiation,  of  even  one  transgression.  The 
just  and  holy  law  of  God  requires  a  nobler  altar,  a  costlier  sacrifice, 
and  a  sweeter  perfume, — the  obedience  and  death  of  a  Divine  Per- 
son to  atone  for  our  sins,  and  the  incense  of  his  continual  interces- 
sion, to  secure  our  acceptance  with  the  Father  of  mercies,  and  ad- 
mission into  the  mansions  of  eternal  rest. 


284  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 


THE   BALSAM   TREE. 

THE  Balsam  tree,  though  not  a  native  of  Judaea,  was  cultivated 
in  great  perfection  in  the  gardens  near  Jericho,  on  the  banks  of 
the  Jordan.    Josephus,  speaking  of  the   Vale  of  Jericho,   says, 
'Now  here  is  the  most  fruitful  country  of  Judsea,  which  bears  a 
vast  number  of  palm  trees,  besides  the  balsam  tree,  whose  sprouts 
they  cut  with  sharp  stones,  and  at  the  incisions  they  gather  the 
juice  which  drops  down  like  tears.'    The  Balsam  produced  by 
these  trees  was  of  such  consequence  as  to  be  noticed  by  all  the 
writers  who  treated  of  Judaea.     When  Alexander  the  Great  was  in 
Juria,  a  spoonful  of  the  balm  was  all  that  could  be  collected  on  a 
summer's  day ;  and  in  the  most  plentiful  year,  the  great  royal  park 
of  these  trees  yielded  only  six  gallons,  and  the  smaller  one  only 
one  gallon.     It  was  consequently  so  dear,  that  it  sold  for  double  its 
weight  in  silver.     But  from  the  great  demand  for  it,  adulteration 
soon  followed,  and  a  spurious  sort  grew  into  common  use,  at  a  less 
price.     Justin,  indeed,  makes  the  balsam  tree  the  source  of  all  the 
national  wealth  ;  for,  in  speaking  of  this  part  of  the  country  he 
says,  'The  wealth  of  the  Jewish  nation  arose  from  the  opobalsam- 
um,  which  grows  only  in  those  countries;  for  it  is  a  valley  like  a 
garden,  which  is  environed  with  continual  hills,  and  as  it  were  en- 
closed with  a  wall.     The  space  of  the  valley  contains  two  hundred 
thousand  acres,  and  it  is  called  Jericho.    In  that  valley  there  is  a 
wood,  as  admirable  for  its  fruitful  ness  as  for  its  delight  ;  for  its 
is  intermingled  with  palm  trees,  and  opobalsamurn.     The  trees  of 
the  opobalsamum  have  a  resemblance  to  the  fir  trees,  but  they  are 
lower,  and  are  planted  and  husbanded  after  the  manner  of  vines ; 
and  on  a  set  season  of  the  year  they  sweat  balsam.     The  darkness 
of  the   place,  is,   besides,  as  wonderful  as  the  fruitfulness  of  it. 
For,  although  the  sun  shines  no  where  hotter  in  the  world,  there 
is  naturally  a  moderate  and   perpetual  gloominess  of  the   air.' 
In  the  estimate  of  the  revenues  which  Cleopatra  derived  from 
the  region  round  about  Jericho,  which  had  been  given  to  her  by 
Antony,  and   which   Herod  afterwards  farmed  of  her,  it  is  said, 
'  This  country  bears  that  balsam  which  is  the  most  precious  drug 
that  is  there,  and  grows  there  only.'    And  in  the  account  of  She- 
ba's  visit  to  Solomon,  from  a  desire  to  see  a  person  so  celebrated 
for  his  wisdom,  it  is  said  that  she  gave  him  twenty  talents  of  gold, 
and  an  immense  quantity  of  spices  and  precious  stones  ;  '  and  they 
say,1  adds  the  Jewish  historian,  '  that  we  are  indebted  for  the  root 
of  that  balsam,  which  our  country  still  bears,  to  this  woman's  gift.' 
This  balsam  is  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures,  under  the  name  of  *  the 
balm  of  Gilead,'  Jer.  viii.  22  ;  ch.  xlvi.  11 ;  ch.  li.  8. 

The  following  account  of  the  tree  is  extracted  by  Dr.  Harris  from 
Mr.  Bruce. 

The  balessan,  balsam,  or  balm,  is  an  evergreen  shrub,  or  tree, 
which  grows  to  about  fourteen  feet  high,  spontaneously,  and  with- 


THE  BALSAM  TREE.  285 


out  culture,  in  its  native  country  &za.b,  and  all  along  the  coast  to 
Babelmandel.  The  trunk  is  about  eight  or  ten  inches  in  diameter  ; 
the  wood  light  and  open,  gummy,  and  outwardly  of  a  reddish  col- 
or, incapable  of  receiving  a  polish,  and  covered  with  a  smooth 
bark,  like  that  of  a  young  cherry  tree.  It  flattens  at  top,  like  trees 
that  are  exposed  to  snow  blasts,  or  sea  air,  which  gives  it.  a  stunted 
appearance.  It  is  remarkable  for  a  penury  of  leaves.  The  flowers 
are  like  those  of  the  acacia,  small  and  white,  only  that  three  hang 
upon  three  filaments,  or  stalks,  where  the  acacia  has  but  one.  Two 
of  these  flowers  fall  off,  and  leave  a  single  fruit;  the  branches  that 
bear  these,  are  the  shoots  of  the  present  year  ;  they  are  of  reddish 
color,  and  tougher  than  the  old  wood.  After  the  blossoms,  follow 
yellow,  fine  scented  seed,  enclosed  in  a  reddish  black  pulpy  nut, 
very  sweet,  and  containing  a  yellowish  liquor,  like  honey.  They 
are  bitter,  and  a  little  tart  upon  the  tongue  ;  of  the  same  shape  and 
size  of  the  turpentine  tree,  thick  in  the  middle,  and  pointed  at  the 
ends. 

There  were  three  kinds  of  balsam  extracted  from  this  tree.  The 
first  was  called  opobalsatnum,  and  was  most  highly  esteemed.  It 
was  that  which  flowed  spontaneously,  or  by  means  of  incision, 
from  the  trunk  or  branches  of  the  tree  in  summer  time.  The  sec- 
ond was  carpobalsamum,  made  by  expressing  the  fruit  when  in  ma- 
turity. The  third,  and  least  esteemed  of  all,  was  hylobalsamum, 
made  by  a  decoction  of  the  buds  and  small  young  twigs. 

The  great  value  set  upon  this  drug  in  the  east  is  traced  to  the 
earliest  ages.  The  Ishmaelites,  or  Arabian  carriers  and  merchants, 
trafficking  with  the  Arabian  commodities  into  Egypt,  brought  with 
them  balm,  as  a  part  of  their  cargo,  Gen.  xxxviii.  25  ;  ch.  xliii.  II. 

Strabo  alone,  of  all  the  ancienis,  has  given  us  the  true  account  of 
the  place  of  its  origin.  '  In  that  most  happj  land  of  the  Sabaeans,' 
says  he,  'grow  the  frankincense,  myrrh,  and  cinnamon  ;  and  in  the 
coast  that  is  about  Saba,  the  balsam  also.'  Among  the  myrrh  trees 
behind  Azab,  all  along  the  coast,  is  its  native  country.  We  need 
not  doubt  that  it  was  transplanted  early  into  Arabia,  that  is,  into  the 
south  part  of  Arabia  Felix,  immediately  fronting  Azab,  where  it  is 
indigenous.  The  high  country  of  Arabia  was  too  cold  to  receive 
it  ;  being  all  mountainous  :  water  freezes  there. 

Notwithstanding  the  positive  authority  of  Josephus,  that  Judea 
was  indebted  to  Sheba  for  this  tree,  Mr.  Bruce  remarks,  that  we 
cannot  put  it  in  competition  with  what  we  have  been  told  in  scrip- 
ture, as  we  have  just  now  seen  that  the  place  where  it  grew,  and 
was  sold  to  merchants,  was  Gilead,  in  Judea,  more  than  1730  years 
before  Christ,  or  1000  before  the  queen  of  Saba  ;  so  that,  in  read- 
ing the  verse,  nothing  can  be  plainer  than  that  it  had  been  trans- 
planted into  Judea,  flourished,  and  had  become  an  article  of  com- 
merce in  Gilead,  long  before  the  period  be  mentions.  'A  compa- 
ny of  Ishmaelites  came  from  Gilead  with  their  camels,  bearing 
spicery,  and  balm,  and  myrrh,  going  to  carry  it  down  to  Egypt,' 
Gen.  xxxvii.  25.  Now  the  spicery,  or  pepper,  he  adds,  was  cer- 


286  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

tainly  purchased  by  the  Israelites  at  the  mouth  of  the  Red  Sea, 
where  was  the  market  for  Indian  goods ;  and  at  the  same  place 
they  must  have  bought  the  myrrh,  for  that  neither  grew,  nor  grows 
any  where  else  than  in  Saba  or  Azabo,  East  of  Cape  Gardefan, 
where  were  the  ports  for  India,  and  whence  it  was  dispersed  over 
all  the  world. 


THE   CYPRESS    TREE, 

THIS  tree  is  only  mentioned  in  Isaiah  xlv.  14,  and  critics  are  not 
agreed  whether  the  Hehrew  word  does  really  denote  the  cypress. 

The  cypress  is  a  Tall  straight  tree,  which,  is  cultivated  with  great 
difficulty.  Its  fruit  is  not  edible  ;  its  leaves  are  bitter  ;  and,  accord- 
ing to  Piiny,  its  very  smell  and  shade  are  highly  dangerous* 
Hence,  the  Romans  considered  it  aft  a  fatal  tree,  and  used  it  at  fu- 
nerals and  mournful  ceremonies.  The  wood  is  always  green,  very 
heavy,  of  an  aromatic  smell,  and  is  not  subject  to  rot,  or  liable  to 
be  eaten  by  worms.  The  tree  is  distinguished  into  male  and  fe- 
male :  the  branches  of  the  male  incline  horizontally,  those  of  the 
female  are  upright.  Its  fruit  is  round,  olive-colored,  and  of  the 
size  of  nuts,  growing  in  separate  places,  and  containing  small  anr 
gular  seeds. 

Bochart,  Fuller,  and  other  writers,  have  maintained,  that  the  go- 
pher-wood of  which  the  ark  was  made  (Genesis  vi.  11)  was  cy- 
press. Says  Park  hurst,  perhaps  gopher  may  be  a  general  name 
for  such  trees  as  abound  with  resinous,  inflammable  juices,  as  the 
cedar,  cypress,  fir-tree,  pine,  &c» 


THE   LIGN    ALOE. 

THE  aloe  tree  is  a  native  of  India,  and  grows  to  the  height  of 
about  eight  or  ten  feet ;  having  at  its  head  large  bunches  of  leaves, 
thick  and  indented,  broad  at  the  bottom,  but  narrowing  towards 
the  point,  and  about  four  feet  in  length.  The  blossom  is  red,  inter- 
mixed with  yellow,  and  double,  similar  to  a  pink :  from  this  blos- 
som proceeds  the  fruit,  round,  like  a  large  pr>a,  white  and  red.  But 
there  is  another  description"  of  tree,  called  the  Syrian  aZoe,  other- 
wise aspalatha,  which  is  a  little  shrub  covered  with  prickles;  of  the 
wood  of  which,  perfumers  (having  taken  off'  the  bark)  make  use, 
to  give  a  consistency  to  their  perfumes,  which  otherwise  would  be 
too  thin  and  liquid.  Cassiodorus  observes,  that  this  is  of  a  very 
sweet  smell,  and  that  in  his  time  they  burned  it  before  the  altars, 
instead  of  frankincense.  It  is  probable  that  this  is  the  shrub  de- 


THE  ROSE  TREE.  287 

noted  by  the  Hebrew  word  ahalim,  which  is  applied  to  a  sweet 
smelling  wood  [Prov.  vii.  17;  Psal.  xlv.  9 ;  Cant.  iv.  14],  which  the 
agalloch  or  wood  of  aloes  is  not. 


THE  ROSE   TREE, 

FROM  a  passage  in  the  Book  of  Eccleslasticus,  we  learn  that  the 
rose  was  a  favorite  among  the  Jewish  people,  as  it  also  is  in  more 
eastern  countries  ;  and  further,  that  it  was  a  noble  tree :  'I  was  ex- 
alted like  a  palm  tree  in  Engeddi,  and  as  a  rose-plant  in  Jericho,' 
ch.  xxiv.  14.  From  this  it  is  evident  that  the  plant  now  called  '  the 
rose  of  Jericho,'  is  a  vegetable  of  a  very  different  description. 

The  following  passage  from  a  celebrated  traveller,  describing  the 
rose  of  Persia,  will  perhaps  convey  something  like  an  accurate 
idea  of  the  celebrated  roses  of  Sharon  and  Jericho,  piior  to  the  des- 
olating of  those  fruitful  regions. 

*  On  first  entering  this  bovver  of  fairy  land,  I  was  struck  with  the 
appearance  of  two  rose  trees;  full  fourteen  feet  high,  laden  with 
thousands  of  flowers,  in  every  decree  of  expansion,  and  of  a  bloom 
and  delicacy  of  scent  that  imbued  the  whole  atmosphere  with  the 
most  exquisite  perfume;  indeed,  I  believe  that  in  no  country  of  the 
world  does  the  rose  grow  in  such  perfection  as  in  Persia — in  no 
country  is  it  so  cultivated  and  prized  by  the  natives.  Their  gardens 
and  courts  are  crowded  with  its  plants,  their  rooms  ornamented 
with  vases  filled  with  its  gathered  bunches,  and  every  bath  strewed 
with  the  fullb-lown  flowers,  plucked  from  the  ever-replenished 
stems.  Even  the  humblest  individual,  who  pays  a  piece  of  copper 
money  for  a  few  whifs  of  a  Kalioun,  feels  a  double  enjoyment  when 
he  finds  it  stuck  with  a  bud  from  his  dear  native  tree ;  but  in  this 
delicious  garden  of  Negauvistan,  the  eye  and  the  smell  were  not  the 
only  senses  regaled  by  the  presence  of  the  rose :  the  ear  was  en- 
chanted by  the  wild  and  beautiful  notes  of  the  multitude  of  night- 
ingales, whose  warblings  seem  to  increase  in  melody  and  softness 
•with  the  unfolding  of  their  favorite  flowers :  verifying  the  song  of 
thek  poet,  who  says,  "When  the  charms  of  the  bower  are  passed 
away,  .the  fond  tale  of  the  nightingale  no  longer  animates  the 
scene."' 

It  was  right,  says  Paxton,  to  consecrate  a  plant  so  lovely  to  the 
service  of  religion.  Solomon  has  accordingly  chosen  it  to  repre- 
sent the  matchless  excellences  of  his  divine  Redeemer :  '  I  am  the 
rose  -of  Sharon  '  [Cant,  ii.] ;  and  the  prophet  Isaiah,  to  give  us 
some  faint  conception  of  the  wonderful  change  which  the  gospel 
produced  in  the  state  of  the  world,  after  the  ascension  of  Christ, 
says, *  The  wilderness  shall  rejoice  and  flourish :  like  the  rose  shall 
it  beautifully  flourish.'— Chap,  xxxv. 


SECTION  III, 
WOODY    TREES. 

THE  OAK. 

THE  oak  being  so  universally  known,  renders  a  particular  descrip- 
tion of  it  unnecessary  ;  but  as  it  is  thought  that  our  translators  have 
sometimes  confounded  it  with  the  terebinth,  which  is  not  so  com- 
mon, we  shall  notice  the  leading  features  in  the  character  of  this 
tree.    Mariti  says,  the  terebinth  is  an  evergreen  of  moderate  size, 
but  having  the  top  and  branches  large  in  proportion  to  the  body,  the 
leaves  resemble  those  of  the  olive,  but  are  of  a  green  color,  inter- 
mixed with  red  and  purple;  the  twigs  that  bear  them  always  termi- 
nate in  a  single  leaf*  the  flowers  are  like  those  of  the  vine,  arid  grow 
in  bunches  like  them  ;  they  are  purple,  the  fruit  is  of  the  size  of 
juniper-berries,  hanging  in  clusters,  and  each  containing  a  single 
seed  of  the  size  of  a  grape-stone ;  they  are  of  a  ruddy  purple,  and 
remarkably  juicy.  Another  fruit,  or  rather  excrescence,  is  found  on 
this  tree,  scattered  amongst  the  leaves,  of  the  size  of  a  chesnut,  of  a 
purple  color,  variegated  with  green  and  white.     The  people  of  Cy- 
prus say  that  it  is  produced  by  the  puncture  of  a  fly:  in  opening 
them  they  appear  full  of  worms ;  the  wood  is  hard  and  fibrous  ;  and 
a  resin  or  gum  distils  from  the  trunk.    The  tree  abounds  near  Je- 
rusalem, and  in  Cyprus. 

Tfye  terebinth  under  which  Abraham  entertained  the  angels  (Gen. 
xviii.  1,  &c.)  is  famous  in  antiquity.  Josephus  says,  that  six  furlongs 
from  Hebron  they  showed  a  very  large  terebinth,  which  the  inhab- 
itants of  the  country  believed  to  be  as  old  as  the  world  itself.  Eu- 
sebius  assures  us  that  in  his  time  the  terebinth  of  Abraham  was  still 
to  be  seen  (!),  and  was  held  in  great  veneration  both  by  Christians 
and  Gentiles,  as  well  from  respect  to  Abraham,  as  to  the  heavenly 
guests  he  entertained  under  it.  Jerom  says,  this  terebinth  was  two 
miles  from  Hebron.  Sozomen  places  it  fifteen  stadia  from  this 
city.  These  variations  induce  a  doubt  whether  the  writers  speak 
of  the  same  tree.  The  terebinth  of  Jacob,  where  he  buried  the 
gods,  brought  by  his  people  from  Mesopotamia  (Gen.  xxxv.  4),  was 
behind  the  city  of  Shechem,  and  far  from  that  at  which  Abraham 
dwelt,  near  Hebron  ;  yet  they  have  been  very  absurdly  confounded 
together.  It  is  thought  to  have  been  under  the  same  terebinth  that 
Joshua  renewed  the  covenant  with  the  Lord  ;  and  that  Abimelech, 
son  of  Gideon,  was  proclaimed  king  by  the  Shechemites. 
The  prophetic  benediction  pronounced  upon  Naphtali  (Gen.  xlix. 


THE  OAK.  289 

*4J),  is  rendered  by  Dr.  Geddes  and  some  other  critics,  'Naphtali  is 
a  spreading  terebinth  producing  beautiful  branches.*  The  reasons 
adduced  against  this  interpretation  may  be  seen  in  pages  110,  111, 
ante. 

We  have  already  noticed  the  religious  veneration  in  which  some 
kind  of  trees  were  held,  by  the  heathen  nations  of  antiquity :  among 
these  th  eoak  stood  in  a  pre-eminent  rank.  *  Ye  shall  be  ashamed 
of  the  oaks  which  ye  have  planted,'  says  Isaiah,  to  the  idolatrous 
Israelites,  chap.  i.  29.  In  Gaul  and  Britain  we  find  that  the  highest 
religious  regard  was  paid  to  the  same  tree  and  its  mistletoe,  under 
the  directions  of  the  Druids ;  that  is,  the  oak-prophets  or  priests. 
Few  are  ignorant  that  the  mistletoe,  or  missaldine,  is  indeed  a  very 
extraordinary  plant,  not  to  be  cultivated  in  the  earth,  but  always  grow- 
ing upon  some  other  tree,  as  upon  the  oak,  apple,  &c.  The  Druids 
says  Pliny,  hold  nothing  more  sacred  than  the  mistletoe,  and  the 
tree  on  which  it  is  produced,  provided  it  be  the  oak.  They  make 
choice  of  groves  of  oak  on  their  own  account,  nor  do  they  perform 
any  of  their  sacred  rites  without  the  leaves  of  those  trees,  so  that 
one  may  suppose  that  they  are  for  this  reason  called  by  a  Greek 
etymology,  Druids.  And  whatever  mistletoe  grows  on  the  oak, 
they  think  it  sent  from  Heaven,  and  as  a  sign  of  God  himself  hav- 
ing chosen  that  tree.  This,  however,  is  very  rarely  found,  but  when 
discovered  is  treated  with  great  ceremony.  They  call  it  by  a  name 
which  in  their  language  signifies  the  curerofall  ills ;  and  having  duly 
prepared  their  feasts  and  sacrifices  under  the  tree,  they  bring  to  it 
two  white  bulls,  whose  horns  are  then  for  the  first  time  tied.  The 
priest,  dressed  in  a  white  robe,  ascends  the  tree,  and  with  a  golden 
pruning-hook  cuts  off  the  mistletoe,  which  is  received  in  a  white  sagum 
or  sheet.  Then  they  sacrifice  the  victims,  praying  that  God  would 
bless  his  own  gift  to  those  on  whom  he  has  bestowed  it. 

Is  it  possible  for  a  Christian  to  read  this  account,  says  Parkhurst, 
from  whom  we  have  transcribed  the  passages,  without  thinking  of 
Him  who  was  the  desire  ofidl  nations:  of  the  man  whose  name  was 
the  BRJ3NCH,  who  had  indeed  no  father  on  eartli,  but  came  down 
from  heaven ;  was  given  to  heal  all  our  ills,  and  after  being  cut  off 
through  the  divine  counsel,  was  wrapped  in  fine  linen,  and  laid  in  the 
sepulchre,  for  our  sakes !  I  cannot  forbear  adding,  he  continues, 
that  the  mistletoe  was  a  sacred  emblem  to  other  Celtic  nations,  as  for 
instance,  to  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  Italy. 


290  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 


THE    FIR    TREE. 

THIS  tree  is  a  beautiful  evergreen  (Hos.  xiv.  8),  whose  lofty  height 
and  dense  foliage  afforded  a  habitation  for  the  birds  of  heaven 
(Psa.  civ,  17),  and  a  convenient  shelter  to  the  weary  traveller,  2 
Kings  xix.  23;  Isa.  Iv.  13 ;  Ezek.  xxxi.  8.  Its  wood  was  anciently- 
used  in  finishing  the  interior  of  sumptuous  buildings  (1  Kings  vi. 
15,  34 ;  2  Chron.  iii.  5 ;  Cant.  i.  17),  and  also  in  the  construction  of 
ships,  Ezek.  xxvii.  5.  In  2  Sam.  vi.  5,  it  is  said,  that '  David  and  all 
the  house  of  Israel  played  before  the  Lord  on  all  manner  of  instru- 
ments made  of  fir  wood,'  &c.  Mr.  Taylor  inclines  to  think  that  the 
word  beroshim,  in  this  passage,  may  express  some  instrument  of  mu- 
sic, rather  than  the  wood  of  which  such  instrument  was  made  ;  but, 
with  his  usual  candor,  he  gives  the  following  passage  from  Dr.  Bur- 
ney's  history  of  music  :  'This  species  of  wood,  so  soft  in  its  nature 
and  sonorous  in  its  effects,  seems  to  have  been  preferred  by  the  an- 
cients, as  vrell  as  the  moderns,  to  every  other  kind,  for  the  construc- 
tion of  mr.:.-ical  instruments,  particularly  the  bellies  of  them,  on 
which  their  tone  chiefly  depends.  Those  of  the  harp,  lute,  guitar, 
harpsichord,  and  violin,  in  present  use  are  constantly  made  of  fir 
wood.' 


THE    POPLAR. 

THIS  tree,  which  is  mentioned  only  in  Gen.  xxx.  37,  and  Hos. 
iv.  13,  is  thought  to  obtain  its  name,  lebneh,  from  the  whiteness  of 
its  leaves,  bark,  and  wood.  In  both  passages  the  Vulgate  interprets 
it l  poplar ;'  in  the  latter,  the  LXX.  and  Aquila  render  ti  white ;  i.  e. 
poplar. 


THE    WILLOW. 

THE  Willow  is  a  common  tree,  growing  in  marshy  places  (Lev. 
xxiii.  40 ;  Ps.  cxxxvii.  2 ;  Isa.  xliv.  4),  and  possessing  a  leaf  like  that 
of  the  olive.  It  is  out  of  doubt,  says  Mr.  Taylor,  that  the  word 
ore&im,  signifies  willows  ;  all  interpreters  agree  in  it.  The  weeping 
willow  is  a  native  of  the  Levant.  It  runs  to  a  considerable  height, 
and  no  tree  can  be  more  graceful  on  the  margin  of  a  lake  or  stream. 
Its  twigs  are  extensively  used  in  the  making  of  baskets. 


THE  MUSTARD  TREE.  291 


THE    MUSTARD    TREE. 

THE  description  which  our  Lord  has  given  of  the  sinapi,  or 
inustard  tree,  in  Matt.  xiii.  31,  32,  and  the  parallel  passages,  has  in- 
duced much  speculation  and  conjecture  among  learned  men.  His 
words  are, '  A  grain  of  mustard  seed,  which  a  man  took  and  sowed 
in  his  field :  which  indeed  is  the  least  of  all  seeds ;  but  when  it  is 
grown,  it  is  the  greatest  among  herbs,  and  becometh  a  tree,  so  that 
the  birds  of  the  air  come  and  lodge  in  the  branches  thereof.'  In 
order  to  account  for  the  discrepancy  which  exists  between  this  rep- 
resentation and  the  character  of  the  sinapis  nigra,  or  common  mus- 
tard plant,  it  has  been  supposed  that  this  may,  in  the  more  favora- 
ble climates  of  the  East,  exceed  by  far  in  its  dimensions  and  strength 
that  which  is  found  in  these  colder  counties.  Lightfoot  cites  a 
passage  from  the  Talmud,  in  which  a  mustard  tree  is  said  to  have 
been  possessed  of  branches  sufficiently  large  to  cover  a  tent ;  and 
Scheuchzer  describes  and  represents  a  species  of  the  plant  several 
feet  high,  and  possessing  a  tree-like  appearance. 

In  support  of  this  conjecture,  Dr.  Clarke  remarks,  *  some  soils  be- 
ing more  luxuriant  than  others,  and  the  climate  much  warmer,  raise 
the  same  plant  to  a  size  and  perfection  far  beyond  what  a  poorer 
soil,  or  a  colder  climate,  can  possibly  do.  Herodotus  says,  he  has 
seen  wheat  and  barley,  in  the  country  of  Babylon,  which  carried  a 
blade  full  four  fingers  in  breadth,  and  that  the  millet  and  sesamum 
grew  to  an  incredible  size.'  The  doctor  states,  that  he  has  himself 
seen  a  field  of  common  cabbages  in  one  of  the  Nortnan  Isles,  each 
of  which  was  from  seven  to  nine  feet  in  height ;  and  one,  in  the  gar- 
den of  a  friend,  which  grew  beside  an  apple  tree,  though  the  lati- 
tude of  the  place  was  only  about  48°  18'  north,  was  fifteen  feet  high. 
These  facts  and  several  others,  which  might  be  adduced,  Dr.  Clarke 
thinks  fully  confirm  the  possibility  of  what  our  Lord  says  of  the 
mustard  tree,  however  incredible  such  things  may  appear  to  those 
who  are  acquainted  only  with  the  productions  of  the  northern  re- 
gions and  cold  climates. 

These  are  striking  specimens,  certainly,  of  the  great  difference 
existing  among  productions  of  the  same  species,  in  different  climates 
and  countries ;  but  then,  their  distinctive  character  remains  the  same ; 
whereas  the  reference  in  our  Lord's  parable  implies  so  essential  a 
difference  as,  on  these  principles,  to  convert  an  herbaceous  plant  into 
a  tree,  and  thus  destroy  the  identity  of  its  character. 

For  the  purpose  of  removing  these  difficulties,  Mr.  Frost,  a  gen- 
tleman eminent  for  his  attainments  in  botanical  science,  published 
a  work,  in  which  he  maintains  that  the  sinapi  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment does  not  signify  any  species  of  the  genus  we  now  designate 
sinapis,  but  a  species  of  the  phytolacca.  We  shall  transcribe  some 
passages  from  his  work,  and"  leave  the  reader  to  form  his  own 
judgment  as  to  the  conclusive  nature  of  his  arguments. 


292  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

'The  seed  of  an  herbaceous  plant,  for  such  is  the  sinapis  nigra  or 
common  mustard,  cannot  possibly  produce  a  tree:  and  however 
great  a  degree  of  altitude  and  circumference  the  stem  of  common 
mustard  might  attain,  yet  it  could  not  afford  support  for  'fowls  of 
the  air,'  even  allowing  it  grew  to  the  height  of  eight  feet,  which  it 
never  does. 

'  Mustard  seed  is  not  the  smallest  of  all  seeds,  as  the  translation  im- 
plies, because  those  of  foxglove  (digitalis  purpurea),and  tobacco  (ni- 
cotiana  tabacum),  are  infinitely  smaller:  these  are  herbaceous,  as  well 
as  mustard  (sinapis  nigra) ;  and  even  granting,  for  a  moment,  that  the 
common  mustard  seed  was  intended,  the  above  evidence  would 
annul  the  validity  of  the  translation.  This  discordancy  has  been 
endeavored  to  be  reconciled  by  a  reference  to  sinapis  erucoidesr 
or  shrubby  mustard;  but  even  this  has  not  the  smallest  seed;  and 
allowing,  for  the  sake  of  argument,  that  this  shrub  could,  by  lux- 
uriance of  soil  arid  climate,  increase  in  height  and  circumference, 
and  throw  off  large  branches, — the  size  of  the  seed  would  remain 
the  same,  and  the  smallest  of  all  seeds  would  not  apply. 

Among  other  statements  made,  as  to  the  size  to  which  the  mus- 
tard plant  will  sometimes  grow,  Mr.  Frost  notices  one  writer,  who 
observes  that  he  saw  one  so  large  that  it  became  a  great  bush,  and 
was  higher  than  the  tallest  man  he  had  ever  seen,  and  that  he  had 
raised  it  from  seed*  This  our  author  readily  conceives  to  be  true 
but  does  not  consider  it  at  all  explanatory  of  the  subject,  because- 
an  annual  plant,  such  as  sinapis  nigra  is,  cannot  become  even  a 
shrub,  much  less  a  tree. 

Having  thus  endeavored  to  prove  that  the  mustard  seed  of  the 
New  Testament  is  not  procured  from  sinapis  nigra,  or  any  species 
of  that  genus,  Mr.  Frost  next  proceeds  to  show  the  identity  that  ex- 
ists between  kokkon  sinapeos,  and  phytolaeca  dodecandra  which  he 
believes  to  be  the  dendron  mega  of  the  scripture.— '  Phytolacca  do- 
decandra grows  abundantly  in  Palestine ;  it  has  the  smallest  seed  of 
any  tree,  and  obtains  as  great,  or  even  greater,  altitude  than  any  oth- 
er in  that  country,  of  which  it  is  a  native. 

c  Common  mustard  is  both  used  for  culinary  and  medicinal  pur- 
poses ;  so  are  several  species  of  phytolacca.  It  is  rather  remarka- 
ble, that  the  acridity  of  the  latter  induced  Linneus  to  place  that 
genus  in  the  natural  order  Piperita3,  whilst  De  Jussieu  referred  it  to 
the  family  Atriplices,  which  certainly  bears  out  its  edible  and  acrid 
properties.  The  North  Americans  calls  phytolacca  dodecandra 
(commonly  known  in  our  gardens  by  the  name  of  American  poke- 
weed),  wild  mustard  ;  Murray,  in  his  Apparatus  Medicaminum,  en- 
ters into  a  long  history  of  the  excellent  quality  of  the  young  shoots  ; 
but  remarks,  that  when  mature,  they  cannot  be  eaten  with  impuni- 
ty. Linneus,  in  his  Materia  Medica,  refers  to  the  same  circumstances. 
Its  being  edible,  may  be  inferred  from  the  Greek  term  lackanony 
which  occurs  Matt.  xiii.  32,  and  Mark  iv.  32. 

'  Mustard  seed  is  applied  externally,  as  a  stimulant,  in  the  form 
of  a  sinapism ;  and  the  foliage  of  phytolacca  dodecandra  was,  used, 
as  an  outward  application  to  cancerous  tumors. 


THE  MUSTARD  TREE.  293 

*  Of  the  acrid  qualities  of  phytolacca  dodecandra  there  can  be  no 
doubt;  so  that  there  appears  a  very  strong  analogy  between  the  ef- 
fects and  properties  of  the  general  sinapis  and  phytolacca ;  besides 
which,  I  have  ascertained  the  existence  of  a  fourth  ultimate  chemical 
element,  Nitrogen,  in  the  seed  of  a  species  of  phytolacca.  Nitrogen 
was  said  only  to  exist  in  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  orders  cru- 
ciatae  and  flingi,  in  the  former  of  which  the  common  mustard, 
sinapis  nigra,  is  placed.' 

Mr.  Frost  then  proceeds  to  sum  up  his  argument,  showing  that 
the  phytolacca  dodecandra  is  the  tree  mentioned  in  the  gospels, 
from  the  following  circumstances : — 

'Because  it  is  one  of  the  largest  trees  indigenous  to  the  country 
where  the  observation  was  made ; — because  it  has  the  smallest  seed 
of  any  tree  in  that  country  ; — because  it  is  both  used  as  a  culinary, 
vegetable,  and  medicinal  stimulant,  which  common  mustard  is  also ; 
— because  a  species  of  the  same  genus  is  well  known  in  the  United 
States,  by  the  term  wild  mustard ; — because  the  ultimate  chemical 
elements  of  the  seed  sinapis  nigra  and  phytolacca  dodecandra  are 
the  same.' 

In  conclusion,  the  author  adds  the  generic  characters  of  the  two 
vegetables,  by  which  they  are  seen,  botanically,  to  be  very  distinct 
families. 

Our  thanks  are  due  to  this  scientific  gentleman,  on  account  of  the 
attention  he  has  bestowed  on  the  investigation  of  this  subject,  for 
the  purpose  of  elucidating  the  sacred  writings ;  the  study  of  which 
he  states  to  be  the  most  interesting  employment  of  the  human  mind. 
We  take  the  liberty,  however,  to  suggest,  that  his  '  Remarks '  would 
be  rendered  much  more  satisfactory  and  contributive  to  the  object 
which  he  had  in  view  by  a  proper  authentication  of  the  various  state- 
ments he  has  made  relative  to  the  phytolacca  dodecandra,  from  the 
writings  of  accredited  Eastern  travellers.  The  absence  of  this  must 
be  strongly  felt  by  every  intelligent  reader  of  his  work. 


25* 


CHAPTER  IV. 
DOUBTFUL  PLANTS  AND  TREES. 


THE  BAY  TREE. 

THIS  tree  is  mentioned  only  in  Ps.  xxxvi.  35,  36 : — *  I  have  seen 
the  wicked  in  great  power,  and  spreading  himself  like  a  green  bay 
tree.  Yet  he  passed  away,  and  lo,  he  was  not:  yea,  I  sought  him, 
but  he  could  not  be  found.'  But  the  original  word  azrech,  merely 
signifies  a  native  tree — a  tree  growing  in  its  native  soil,  not  having 
suffered  by  transplantation,  and  therefore  spreading  itself  luxuri- 
antly. 


THE    PINE    TREE. 

THIS  tree  appears  in  three  passages  of  our  Bible  ;  but  the  manner 
in  which  it  is  introduced  affords  us  no  means  of  ascertaining 
whether  this  is  a  correct  rendering  of  the  original  word.  The  first 
passage  is  Neh.  viii.  15,  where  it  is  stated  that  pine  branches  were 
to  be  used  in  constructing  the  booths  at  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles. 
The  Hebrew  words  literally  signify  trees  of  fatness,  and  so  seem 
to  mean  the  resinous  or  gummy  kind  of  trees,  whose  juices  supera- 
bound  and  exude. 

In  Isa.  xli.  19,  and  ch.  Ix.  13,  the  word  is  thedher,  and  the  tree  is 
so  called,  says  Parkhurst,  from  the  sprightliness  or  elasticity  of  its 
wood.  Luther  thought  it  was  the  elm  :  there  is  nothing,  however, 
t©  operate  against  retaining  the  pine,  which  is  found  in  Syria. 


THE    SHITTAH    TREE. 

THIS  tree  is  only  mentioned  in  Isaiah  xli.  19  j  but  the  wood 
which  it  furnished  is  spoken  of  in  several  passages  in  the  Old  Tes- 
tament. The  difficulty  of  identifying  the  shittah  tree,  has  been 
felt  by  all  interpreters,  as  is  evident  in  the  retention  of  the  Hebrew 
name  by  many  of  them,  and  the  diversified  renderings  of  others. 


THE  ALMUG  TREE.  295 

Dr.  Shaw,  Mr.  Parkhurst,  and  Mr.  Taylor,  take  the  shittah  to  be 
the  same  as  the  acanthus,  or  the  acacia  vera ;  a  tree  about  the  size 
of  the  mulberry  tree,  producing  yellow  flowers,  and  pods  like  lu- 
pines. It  also  yields  the  gum  Arabic.  The  bark  of  this  tree  is  of 
a  greyish  black  ;  its  wood  is  of  a  pale  yellow  color;  its  leaves  re- 
semble those  of  a  lentil,  and  many  hang  together  on  the  same  side 
of  a  branch.  The  branches  are  full  of  thorns,  which  are  often  in 
pairs,  and  its  foliage  is  extremely  scanty. 

The  ark  of  the  covenant  (Exod.  xxv.  10),  the  table  of  the  shew- 
bread  (ver.  23)  the  bars  and  pillars  of  the  tabernacle  (ch.  xxvi.  26, 
32,  37),  the  altar  of  burnt-offering  (ch.  xxvii.  1  ;  ch.  xxxviii.  1),  and 
the  altar  of  incense  (ch.  xxx.  1),  were  all  made  of  shittirn  wood, 
which  the  LXX.,  apparently  unable  to  identify,  have  rendered, '  in- 
corruptible wood.' 


THE  ALMUG  TREE. 

ALMUG  trees  are  mentioned  in  1  Kings  x.  1 1, 12,  as  being  among1 
the  costly  things  brought  from  Ophir  by  the  navy  of  Hiram,  to 
king  Solomon. 

To  detail  the  various  opinions  maintained  by  the  learned,  as  to 
the  particular  tree  intended  by  the  cdmug  or  algum,  would  answer 
little  purpose,  though  it  would  occupy  considerable  space.  We 
will,  however,  transcribe  the  entire  passage  relative  to  it,  from  Jo- 
sephus,  as  his  statement  may  be  considered,  in  such  a  case,  of  some 
importance.  'About  the  same  time,  there  were  brought  to  the 
king,  from  the  Aurea  Chersonesus,  a  country  so  called,  precious 
stones,  and  pine  trees ;  and  these  trees  he  made  use  of  for  support- 
ing the  temple  and  the  palace,  as  also  for  the  materials  of  musical 
instruments,  the  harps,  and  the  psalteries  that  the  Levites  might 
make  use  of  in  their  hymns  to  God.  The  wood  which  was  brought 
to  him  at  this  time,  was  larger  and  finer  than  any  that  had  ever 
been  brought  before  ;  but  let  no  one  imagine  that  these  pine  trees 
were  like  those  which  are  now  so  named,  and  which  take  their 
denomination  from  the  merchants,  who  so  call  them,  that  they 
may  procure  them  to  be  admired  by  those  that  purchase  them ; 
for  those  we  speak  of,  were,  to  the  sight,  like  the  wood  of  the  fig 
tree,  but  were  whiter  and  more  shining.  Now,  we  have  said  thus 
much,  that  nobody  may  be  ignorant  of  the  difference  between 
these  sorts  of  wood,  nor  unacquainted  with  the  nature  of  the  genu- 
ine pine  tree ;  and  we  thought  it  both  a  seasonable  and  humane 
thing  when  we  mentioned  it,  and  the  uses  the  king  made  of  it,  to 
explain  this  difference  so  far  as  we  have  done.' 


296  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 


THE    BOX   TREE. 

THE  box  tree,  being  an  evergreen,  answers  well  enough  to  the 
Hebrew  fashur,  which  probably  implies  perpetual  viridity.  The 
objection  to  this  tree,  that  it  is  not  sufficiently  stately,  seems  to 
possess  no  weight,  because  there  are  associations  of  objects  of  an 
equally  disproportionate  size,  where  they  participate  of  a  common 
character,  in  other  parts  of  the  sacred  writings.  The  import  of  the 
passages  where  this  tree  is  spoken  of  (Isa.  xli.  39  ;  ch.  Ix.  '13.),  ap- 
pears to  be  this  \-  a  perpetual  verdure  shall  succeed  to  an  unbroken 
barrenness — '  I  will  plant  in  the  wilderness  the  cedar,  the  shittah 
tree,  and  the  myrtle,  and  the  oil  tree  ;  I  will  set  in  the  desert  the  fir 
tree,  and  the  pine,  and  the  box  tree  together.'  But  as  we  have  not 
sufficient  means  to  ascertain  satisfactorily  whether  this  was  the 
tree  to  which  the  prophet  referred,  we  prefer  to  place  it  in  this 
section. 


THE    GOURD. 

M.  MICHAELIS  in  his  remarks  on  Jonah  iv.  says,  '  Celsius  appears 
to  me  to  have  proved  that  it  is  the  '  kiki  of  the  Egyptians.'  Hero- 
dotus says:  'The  inhabitants  of  the  marshy  grounds  in  Egypt 
make  use  of  an  oil  which  they  term  the  kiki,  expressed  from  the 
Sillicyprian  plant.  In  Greece  this  plant  springs  spontaneously 
without  any  cultivation  ;  but  the  Egyptians  sow  it  on  the  banks  of 
the  river  and  the  canals ;  it  there  produces  fruit  in  abundance,  but 
of  a  very  strong  odor.  When  gathered  they  obtain  from  it,  either 
by  friction  or  pressure,  unctuous  liquid  which  diffuses  an  offensive 
smell,  but  for  burning,  it  is  equal  in  quality  to  the  oil  of  olives.' 
This  plant  rises  with  a  strong  herbaceous  stalk  to  the  height  often 
or  twelve  feet ;  and  is  furnished  with  very  large  leaves,  not  unlike 
those  of  the  plane  tree.  Rabbi  Kimchi  says,  that  the  people  of  the 
East  plant  them  before  their  shops  for  the  sake  of  the  "shade,  and 
to  refresh  themselves  under  them.  M.  Niebhur  says,  ^1  saw  for 
the  first  time,  at  Basra,  the  plant  el-keroa.  It  has  the  form  of  a 
tree.  The  trunk  appeared  to  me  rather  to  resemble  leaves  than 
wood ;  nevertheless,  it  is  harder  than  that  which  bears  the  Adam's 
fig.  Each  branch  of  the  keroa  has  but  one  large  leaf,  with  six  or 
seven  foldings  in  it.  This  plant  was  near  a  rivulet  which  watered 
it  amply.  At  the  end  of  October,  1765,  it  had  risen  in  five  months 
time,  about  eight  feet,  and  bore  at  once  flowers  and  fruit,  ripe  and 
unripe.  Another  tree  of  this  species  which  had  not  had  so  much 
water,  had  not  grown  more  in  a  whole  year*  The  flowers  and 
leares  of  it  which  I  gathered,  withered  in  a  few  minutes  ;  as  do  all 


THE  HEATH.  297 

plants  of  a  rapid  growth.  This  tree  is  called  at  Aleppo,  'Palma 
Christi.'  An  oilis  made  from  it  called  *  oleum  de  keroa ;  oleum 
cicinum  ;  oleum  ficus  infernalis.'  The  Christians  and  Jews  of 
Mosul  [Nineveh]  say,  it  was  not  the  keroa,  whose  shadow  retresh- 
ed  Jonah,  but  a  sort  of  gourd,  el-kera,  which  has  very  large  leaves, 
very  large  fruit,  and  lasts  about  four  months.' 

The  epithet  which  the  prophet  uses  in  speaking  of  the  plant, 
*  son  of  the  night  it  was,  and  son  of  the  night  it  died,'  does  not  com- 
pel us  to  believe  that  it  grew  in  a  single  night,  but  either  by  a 
strong  oriental  figure,  that  it  was  of  rapid  growth,  or  akin  to  night 
in  the  shade  it  spread  for  his  repose.  The  figure  is  not  uncommon 
in  the  East,  and  one  of  our  own  poets  has  called  the  rose  '  child  of 
summer.'  Nor  are  we  bound  to  take  the  expression  'on  the  mor- 
row '  as  strictly  importing  the  very  next  day,  since  the  word  has 
reference  to  much  more  distant  time,  Exod.  xiii.  5  ;  Deut.  vi.  20  ; 
Josh.  iv.  6.  It  might  be  simply  taken  as  afterwards.  The  circum- 
stance of  the  speedy  withering  of  the  flowers  and  leaves  of  the  ke- 
roa should  not  be  slightly  passed  over ;  nor  that  of  its  present  name 
cicinum  (pronouncing  the  c  hard,  like  fc),  which  is  sufficiently  near 
the  kikiun  of  Jonah.  The  author  of  '  Scripture  Illustrated '  re- 
marks, « as  the  history  of  Jonah  expressly  says,  the  Lord  prepared 
this  plant,  no  doubt  we  may  conceive  of  it  as  an  extraordinary  one 
of  its  kind,  remarkably  rapid  in  its  growth,  remarkably  hard  in  its 
stem,  remarkably  vigorous  in  its  branches,  and  remarkable  for  the 
extensive  spread  of  its  leaves  and  the  deep  gloom  of  their  shadow ; 
and,  after  a  certain  duration,  remarkable  for  a  sudden  withering, 
and  a  total  uselessness  to  the  impatient  prophet.' 

On  the  wild  gourds  of  2  Kings  iv.  39,  we  have  spoken  in  the  ar- 
ticle on  the  vine. 


THE    HEATH. 

<  HE  shall  be  like  the  heath  in  the  desert,'  says  the  prophet ;  <  he 
shall  not  see  when  good  cometh ;  but  shall  inhabit  the  parched 
places  in  the  wilderness,  a  salt  land,'  Jer.  xvii.  6.  And  again, — 
*  Flee,  save  yourselves,  and  be  like  the  heath  in  the  wilderness,'  ch. 
xlviii.  6.  But  what  plant  is  this  heath  ?  The  LXX.  and  the  Vul- 
gate say,  'a  tamarisk:'  others  'a  leafless  tree;'  and  Parkhurst 
quotes  from  Taylor, «  a  blasted  tree,  stripped  of  its  foliage.'  If  it  be 
a  particular  plant,  he  thinks  the  tamarisk  as  likely  as  any,  because 
these  trees  have  not  much  beauty  to  recommend  them,  their  branch- 
es being  produced  in  so  straggling  a  manner,  as  not  by  any  art  to 
be  trained  up  regularly  :  and  their  leaves  are  commonly  thin  upon 
their  branches,  and  fall  away  in  winter,  so  that  there  is  nothing  to 
recommend  them  but  their  address.  But  the  question  presents  it- 


298  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

self,  says  Mr.  Taylor,  can  the  tamarisk  live  in  a  sah  land  ?  in  parch- 
ed places  ?  He  thinks  not,  and  therefore  proposes  to  seek  the  He- 
brew orur  among  the  lichens,  a  species  of  plants  which  are  the  last 
productions  of  vegetation,  under  the  severe  cold  of  the  frozen  zone, 
and  under  the  glowing  heats  of  the  equatorial  deserts;  so  that  it 
seems  best  qualified  to  endure  parched  places,  and  a  salt  land. 


HEMLOCK, 

THE  word  in  Hebrew  is  used  to  denote  a  deadly  poison  in  gen- 
eral, whether  animal  or  vegetable  :  Deut.  xxix.  18,  margin,  &c.  It 
is  frequently  joined  with  wormwood;  and  from  a  comparison  of 
Ps.  Ixix.  22,  with  John  xix.  29,  the  learned  Bochart  thinks  this 
herb  in  the  Psalms  to  be  the  same  as  the  Evangelist  calls  hyssop,  a 
species  of  which  growing  in  Judea,  he  proves  to  be  bitter  ;  adding, 
that  *  it  is  so  bitter  as  not  to  be  eatable.' 

From  Hos.  x.  4,  &c.  it  seems  that  this  word  is  also  used  to  de- 
note some  particular  vegetable  :  *  Judgment  springeth  up  as  hem- 
lock, in  the  furrows  of  the  field.'  Here  the  comparison,  as  Mr. 
Taylor  suggests,  is  to  a  bitter  herb,  which,  growing  among  corn, 
overpowers  the  useful  vegetable,  and  substitutes  a  pernicious  weed. 
If  the  comparison  be  to  a  plant  growing  in  the  furrows  of  the 
field,  strictly  speaking,  he  continues,  then  we  are  much  restricted 
in  our  plants,  likely  to  answer  this  character ;  but  if  we  may  take 
the  ditches  around,  or  the  moist  and  sunken  places  within  the  field 
also,  then  we  may  include  other  plants,  and  there  is  no  reason  why 
hemlock  may  not  be  intended. 


WORMWOOD. 

THIS  may  very  properly  follow  hemlock,  or  gall ;  as  it  is  so  fre- 
quently united  with  it  in  scripture.  It  must  be  observed,  that  the 
disagreeable  effects  attributed  to  this  plant  (Deut.  xxix.  18  ;  Prov. 
v.  4;  Jer.  ix.  15 ;  ch.  xxiii.  15  ;  Amos  v.  7  ;  and  Rev.  viii.  11),  by 
no  means  accord  with  the  wormwood  of  Europe,  which  is  rather  a 
salutary  herb  than  a  deadly  poison.  The  true  wormwood,  there- 
fore, may  not  be  intended,  but  some  plant  allied  to  it,  either  in 
form  or  appearance ;  or  which  if  it  be  of  the  same  class,  differs  by 
its  more  formidable  properties.  The  LXX.  usually  translate  the 
word  by  terms  expressive  of  its  figurative  sense. 


MALLOWS.  299 


TARES. 

IT  is  not  easy  to  decide,  says  Mr.  Taylor,  whether  by  the  term 
zizania  in  Matt.  xiii.  the  Saviour  intends  indifferently  all  plants  which 
grow  among  grain,  or  some  particular  species.  All  we  are  certain 
of  from  the  circumstances  of  the  parable  is?  that  it  is  a  plant  which 
rises  to  the  height  of  the  corn.  Parkhurst  cites  Mintert,  who  says, 
it  is  a  plant  in  appearance  not  unlike  corn  or  wheat,  having  at  first 
the  same  kind  of  stalk,  and  the  same  viridity,  but  bringing  forth  no 
fruit,  at  least  none  good.'  He  adds,  from  John  Melchoir,  zizanion 
does  not  signify  every  weed,  in  general,  which  grows  among  corn, 
but  a  particular  species  of  weed  known  in  Canaan,  which  was  not 
unlike  wheat,  but  being  put  into  ground,  degenerated,  and  assumed 
another  nature  and  form.  It  bringeth  forth  leaves  like  those  of 
wheat  or  barley,  yet  rougher,  with  a  long  ear,  made  up  of  many  lit- 
tle ones,  every  particular  whereof  contatneth  two  or  three  grains 
less  than  those  of  wheat ;  scarcely  any  chaffy  husk  to  cover  them 
with ;  by  reason  whereof  they  are  easily  shaken  about,  and  scattered 
abroad.  They  grow  in  fields  among  wheat  and  barley.  They  spring 
and  flourish  with  the  corn ;  and  in  August  the  seed  is  ripe. 

It  grows  among  corn.  If  the  seeds  remain  mixed  with  the  meal, 
they  render  a  man  drunk  by  eating  the  bread.  The  reapers  do  not 
separate  the  plant;  but,  after  the  threshing,  they  reject  the  seeds  by 
means  of  a  fan  or  sieve.  Nothing,  says  Mr.  Taylor,  can  more  clear- 
ly elucidate  the  plant  intended  by  our  Lord,  than  this  extract. — It 
grows  among  corn — so  in  the  parable.  The  reapers  do  not  separate 
the  plants — so  in  the  parable :  both  grow  together  till  harvest.  Af- 
ter the  threshing  they  separate  them — in  the  parable  they  are  gath- 
ered from  among  the  wheat,  and  separated  by  the  hand,  then  gath- 
ered into  bundles.  Their  seeds,  if  any  remain  by  accident,  are 
finally  separated  by  winnowing ;  which  is,  of  course,  a  process  pre- 
paratory to  being  gathered — the  corn  into  the  garner,  or  storehouse 
—the  injurious  plant  into  heaps  for  consumption  by  fire,  as  weeds 
are  consumed. 


MALLOWS. 

THE  mallows  of  our  translation,  occurs  only  in  Job  xxx.  4,  where 
speaking  of  the  former  miserable  condition  of  some  of  those  per- 
sons who  now  held  him  in  derision,  the  patriarch  says,  '  Who  cut 
up  mallows  by  the  bushes,  and  juniper  roots  for  their  meat.'  Refer- 
ring the  reader  to  the  account  of  the  juniper  for  some  general  remarks 
on  the  passage,  we  shall  here  only  add,  after  Parkhurst,  that  the 
name  shows  the  vegetable  spoken  of  to  be  a  root  of  a  brackish  or 
saltish  taste. 


300  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 


MANNA. 

REFERRING  our  readers  to  Exod.  xv.  1,  for  an  account  of  the  mi- 
raculous supply  of  this  substance,  as  an  article  of  food,  and  the  cir- 
cumstances connected  therewith,  we  shall  at  once  proceed  to  state 
what  we  hav£  collected  on  the  article  itself. 

To  describe  this  substance,  the  sacred  writer  states,  that  it  was 
*  a  small  round  thing,  as  small  as  the  hoar  frost  on  the  ground ' 
(Exod.  xvi.  14) ;  that  it  was  *  like  coriander  seed,  white,  and  the 
taste  like  wafers  made  with  honey'  (ver.  31);  and  the  color  like  that 
of  bdellium,  Numb.  xi.  7. 

Whatever  this  substance  was,  says  Dr.  A.  Clarke,  it  was  nothing 
common  to  the  wilderness.  It  is  evident  the  Israelites  never  saw 
it  before  ;  for  Moses  says  (Deut.  viii.  3,  16),  '  He  fed  thee  with 
manna  which  thou  knewedst  not,  neither  did  thy  fathers  know  ;' 
and  it  is  very  likely  that  nothing  of  the  kind  had  ever  been  seen 
before ;  and,  by  a  pot  of  it  being  laid  up  in  the  ark,  it  is  as  likely 
that  nothing  of  the  kind  ever  appeared  more,  after  the  miraculous 
supply  in  the  wilderness  had  ceased.  It  seems,  he  adds,  to  have 
been  created  for  the  present  occasion  ;  and  like  him,  whom  it  typi- 
fied, to  have  been  the  only  thing  of  the  kind,  the  only  bread  from 
heaven,  which  God  ever  gave  to  preserve  the  life  of  man  ;  as  Christ 
is  the  bread  which  came  down  from  heaven,  and  was  given  for  the 
life  of  the  world. 

The  Psalmist,  referring  to  this  supply  of  mannn  and  quails,  adopts 
a  phraseology  which  clearly  implies  its  miraculous  character: — 

He  commanded  the  clouds  from  above, 

And  opened  tho  doors  of  heaven  ; 

He  rained  down  manna  upon  them  to  eat, 

And  gave  them  of  the  corn  of  heaven. — 

Each  one  ate  of  food  from  above ; 

He  sent  them  meat  to  the  full. 

Ps.  Ixxviii.  23—25. 

We  shall  close  this  article  with  Mr.  Bloomfield's  very  excellent 
note  on  John  vi.  31 — 33,  which  passage  may  appear,  at  first  sight, 
to  contradict  the  text  of  the  Psalmist:  'Our  fathers  did  eat  manna 
in  the  desert :  as  it  is  written,  *  He  gave  them  bread  from  heaven 
to  eat.'  Then  Jesus  said  unto  them,  Verily,  verily,  I  say  unto  you, 
Moses  gave  you  not  that  bread  from  heaven ;  but  my  Father  giveth 
you  the  true  bread  from  heaven :  For  the  bread  of  God  is  he  which 
cometh  down  from  heaven,  and  giveth  life  unto  the  world.'  Some 
maintain  that  Jesus,  by  his  reply,  only  intended  to  refute  the  Jew- 
ish opinion  respecting  the  origin  of  manna  ;  and  thus  said  that  the 
bread  which  their  ancestors  had  received  from  Moses,  did  not  come 
from  heaven,  but  was  only  naturally  formed.  But  this  would  re- 
quire a  different  phraseology.  It  rather  seems  that  Jesus,  whose 
aim  it  was  to  remove  far  more  serious  errors,  even  such  as  respect- 


MANNA.  301 

ed  the  morals  of  men,  followed  the  popular  manner  of  speaking  ; 
thus  wisely  accommodating  himself  to  their  harmless  opinion,  in 
order  to  avoid  giving  them  unnecessary  offence.  The  passage  may 
be  thus  paraphrased :  '  The  bread  from  heaven,  the  true  celestial 
bread,  Moses  did  not  bestow  on  your  forefathers ;  he  procured  on- 
ly bread  fit  to  satiate  the  corporeal  appetite,  and  appertaining  only 
to  this  fleeting,  transitory  life.  (See  verse  49).  But  my  Father  be- 
stow eth  on  you,  by  me,  bread  which  may,  in  the  complete  sense, 
be  termed  bread  from  heaven  ;  such  as  is  adapted  to  nourish  the 
soul,  and  will  confer  eternal  salvation,'  verse  33.  Jesus  calls  him- 
self the  true  celestial  bread,  inasmuch  as,  having  descended  from 
heaven,  he  bestows  on  men  the  nourishment  of  the  soul,  namely, 
the  divine  and  saving  truths  of  his  gospel.  (Kuinoel.)  Since  they 
supposed  that  the  manna  was  bread  from  heaven  in  the  proper 
sense,  Jesus  corrects  their  erroneous  notion,  by  hinting  that  the 
true  heaven  is  there  used  par  catachresin  for  the  air,  or  sky  ;  as 
when  it  is  said,  the  fowls  of  heaven,  i.  e.  the  air :  q.  d.  '  As  that 
descending  from  on  high,  nourished  those  who  partook  of  it,  so  do 
I  also.  But  that  was  from  the  air ;  1  from  the  real  heaven.  Thai 
nourished  the  bodies ;  but  1  support  and  strengthen  the  souls  of 
men.'  Our  Lord's  declaration  imports,  as  Mr.  Bloomfield  imag- 
ines, that  it  is  in  a  subordinate  sense  only,  that  what  dropped  from 
the  clouds,  and  was  sent  for  the  nourishment  of  the  body,  still  mor- 
tal, could  be  called  the  bread  of  heaven,  being  but  a  type  of  that 
which  hath  descended  from  the  heaven  of  heavens,  for  nourishing 
the  immortal  soul  unto  eternal  life,  and  which  is,  therefore,  in  the 
most  sublime  sense,  the  bread  of  heaven. 


26 


CHAPTER    V. 
VEGETABLE    SUBSTANCES. 


SEC.   I.— WOODS. 


T  H  Y  I N  E. 

THIS  wood  is  mentioned,  in  Rev.  xviii.  12,  among  the  various  ar~ 
tides  of  luxury  imported  into  the  modern  Babylon. 

Thepphrastus  says,  that  the  thyon  or  thya-tree  grows  near  the 
temple  of  Jupiter  Ammon  (in  Africa),  in  the  Cyrenaica,  that  it  is 
like  the  cypress  in  its  boughs,  leaves,  stalk,  and  fruit,  and  that  its 
wood  never  rots.  It  was  in  high  esteem  among  the  heathen,  who 
often  made  the  doors  of  their  temples  and  the  images  of  their  god* 
of  this  wood. 


CASSIA. 

IN  Exodus  xxx.  24,  Cassia  is  prescribed  as  one  of  the  ingredient* 
for  composing  the  holy  anointing  oil.  It  is  the  bark  of  a  tree  of  the 
bay  tribe,  which  now  grows  chiefly  in  the  East  Indies.  This  bark 
was  made  known  to  the  ancients,  and  highly  esteemed  by  them ; 
but,  since  the  use  of  cinnamon  has  been  generally  adopted,  the 
cassia  bark  has  fallen  into  disrepute,  on  account  of  its  inferiority. 
It  is  'thicker  and  more  coarse  than  cinnamon,  of  weaker  quality, 
and  abounds  more  with  a  viscid  mucilaginous  matter.  For  many 
purposes,  however,  Cassia,  as  being  much  less  expensive,  is  substi- 
tuted for  cinnamon,  but  more  particularly  for  the  preparation  of 
what  is  called  oil  of  cinnamon. 

Cassia  was  one  of  the  articles  of  merchandize  in  the  markets  of 
Tyre,  Ezek.  xxvii.  19.  The  Cassia  mentioned  in  Psalm  xlv.  8,  is 
thought  to  have  been  an  extract,  or  essential  oil,  from  the  bark. 


CINNAMON.  303 


CINNAMON. 

THIS  was  also  one  of  the  ingredients  of  the  holy  anointing  oil 
(Exod.  xxx.) ;  but  whether  it  was  the  bark  of  the  same  tree  as  that 
now  commonly  used,  is  by  no  means  certain ;  it  is  only  found  in 
the  East  Indies  and  in  China,  with  which,  it  is  unnecessary  to  say, 
there  was  no  communication  in  the  time  of  Moses.  Pliny  speaks 
of  a  species  of  cinnamon  which  grew  in  Syria:  it  was  probably  of 
an  inferior  description  to  that  of  Ceylon. 

The  cinnamon  tree  is  mentioned,  among  other  aromatics,  in  Cant, 
iv.  14,  and  as  it  is  by  no  means  unlikely  that  Solomon  had  import- 
ed some  of  those  from  India,  the  following  account  of  it  will  not 
be  out  of  place  here. 

This  valuable  laurel  rises  above  twenty  feet  in  height ;  the  trunk 
extends  about  six  feet  in  length,  and  one  foot  and  a  half  in  diame- 
ter: it  sends  off  numerous  branches,  which  are  covered  with  smooth 
bark,  of  a  brownish  ash  color ;  the  leaves  stand  in  opposite  pairs, 
upon  short  foot-stalks  ;  they  are  of  an  ovalish  oblong  shape,  obtuse- 
ly pointed,  entire,  firm,  from  three  to  five  inches  long,  of  a  bright 
green  color,  and  marked  with  three  whitish  longitudinal  nerves. 
The  common  peduncles  grow  from  the  younger  branches,  and  af- 
ter dividing,  produce  the  flower  in  a  kind  of  paniculated  umbel. 
The  petals  are  six,  oval,  pointed,  concave,  spreading,  of  a  greenish 
white  or  yellowish  color,  and  the  three  outermost  are  broader  than 
the  other ;  the  filaments  are  nine,  shorter  than  the  corolla,  flattish, 
erect,  standing  in  ternaries,  and  at  the  base  of  each  of  the  three  in- 
nermost, two  small  round  glands  are  placed ;  the  antheree  are  dou~ 
ble,  and  unite  upon  the  top  of  the  filament ;  the  germen  is  oblong, 
the  style  simple,  of  the  length  of  the  stamina,  and  the  stigma  is  de- 
pressed and  triangular  :  the  fruit  is  a  pulpy  pericarpiurn,  resembling 
a  small  olive  of  a  deep  blue  color,  inserted  in  the  corrollae,  and  con- 
taining an  oblong  nut. 

The  use  of  the  cinnamon  tree  is  not  confined  to  the  bark ;  for  it  is 
remarkable  that  the  leaves,  the  fruit,  and  the  root,  all  yield  oil  of 
very  different  qualities,  and  of  considerable  value  :  that  produced 
from  the  leaves  is  called  oil  of  cloves,  and  oleum  Malabathri :  that 
obtained  from  the  fruit  is  extremely  fragrant,  of  a  thick  consistence, 
and  at  Ceylon  is  made  into  candles,  for  the  sole  use  of  the  king. 
The  bark  of  the  root  not  only  affords  an  aromatic  essential  oil,  or 
what  has  been  called  oil  of  camphor,  of  great  estimation  for  its 
medical  use,  but  also  a  species  of  camphor,  which  is  much  purer 
and  whiter  than  that  kept  in  the  shops. 

The  spice  so  well  known  to  us  by  the  name  of  cinnamon,  is 
the  inner  bark  of  the  tree  ;  and  those  plants  produce  it  in  the  most 
perfect  state,  which  are  about  six  or  seven  years  old,  but  this  must 
varyaccording  to  circumstances. 

The  bark,  while  on  the  trees,  is  first  freed  of  its  external  green- 


304  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

ish  coat ;  it  is  then  cut  longitudinally,  stripped  from  the  trees,  and 
dried  in  sand,  till  it  becomes  fit  for  the  market,  when  it  is  of  a  red- 
dish yellow,  or  a  pale  rusty  iron  color,  very  light,  thin,  and  curling 
up  into  quills  or  canes,  which  are  somewhat  tough,  and  of  a  fibrous 
texture.  It  is  frequently  mixed  with  cassia,  which  is  distinguish- 
ed from  the  cinnamon  by  its  taste  being  remarkably  slimy.  This 
bark  is  one  of  the  most  grateful  of  the  aromatics;  of  a  very  fragrant 
smell,  and  a  moderately  pungent,  glowing,  but  not  fiery  taste,  ac- 
companied with  considerable  sweetness,  and  some  degree  of  as- 
tringency. 


SECTION    II. 
FRUITS. 


NUTS. 

THESE  are  mentioned  among  the  articles  whicli  Israel  desired 
his  sons  to  take  as  a  present  to  the  governor  of  Egypt,  his  unknown 
child,  Gen.  xliii.  11.  Bochart,  Shaw,  and  some  other  critics  are  of 
opinion  that  the  pistachio  nut  is  intended,  the  finest  in  the  world 
being  found  in  Syria ;  but  according  to  others,  it  was  the  produce 
of  a  species  of  the  terebinth,  which  some  prefer  to  the  pistachio, 
and  some  think  superior  to  the  almond.  The  name  of  this  kind  of 
terebinth  us  is,  in  Arabic,  beten,  which  is  the  word  used  in  the  pas- 
sage under  consideration. 


HUSKS. 

IT  now  seems  to  be  admitted  that  the  word  ceration  denotes  not 
peas  and  beans,  but  the  fruit  of  the  cerationa,  or  carob  tree,  com- 
mon in  Spain,  Italy,  Turkey,  and  the  East,  where  the  fruit  still 
continues  to  be  used  for  the  same  purposes  as  that  referred  to  in 
Luke  xv.  16.  Galen  speaks  of  it  as  a  woody  kind  of  food,  creating 
bile,  and  necessarily  hard  of  digestion.  Sir  Thomas  Brown  is 
thought  to  have  been  the  first  to  have  discovered  the  sort  of  vegeta- 
ble here  meant ;  aud  as  his  details  are,  upon  the  whole,  the  most 
complete  and  interesting,  and  the  work  itself  of  not  frequent  oc- 
currence, we  make  the  following  extract: 

*  That  the  prodigal  son  desired  to  eat  of  husks  given  unto  swine, 
will  hardly  pass  in  your  apprehension  for  the  husks  of  beans,  peas, 
or  such  edulious  pulses;  as  well  understanding  that  the  textual 
word,  ccration,  properly  intendeth  the  fruit  of  the  saligna  tree,  so 
common  in  Syria,  and  fed  upon  by  men  and  beasts;  also,  by  some, 
the  fruit  of  the  locust  tree,  and  Panis  Sancti  Johannis,  as  conceiv- 
ing it  to  have  been  part  of  the  diet  of  the  Baptist  in  the  desert. 
The  tree  and  fruit  is  not  only  common  in  Asia,  and  the  eastern 
parts,  but  also  well  known  in  Apuglia,  and  the  kingdom  of  Naples, 
growing  along  the  Via  Appia,  from  Fundi  unto  Mola:  the  hard 
cods  or  husks  make  a  rattling  noise  in  windy  weather,  by  beating 
26* 


306  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

against  one  another ;  called  by  the  Italians  carobbe,  or  carrobole, 
and  by  the  French  carouges.  With  the  sweet  pulp  hereof,  some 
conceive  that  the  Indians  preserve  ginger,  mirabolans,  and  nutmegs. 
Of  the  same,  as  Pliny  delivers,  the  ancients  made  one  kind  of  wine, 
strongly  expressing  the  juice  thereof:  and  so  they  might  often  give 
the  expressed  and  less  useful  parts  of  the  cods  and  remaining  pulp, 
unto  their  swine ;  which,  being  no  gustless  or  unsatisfying  offal, 
might  be  well  desired  by  the  prodigal  in  his  hunger.' 

To  this  account  we  subjoin  from  Mr.  Taylor  the  following  de- 
scription of  the  tree,  and  also  some  further  particulars  of  the  fruit. 

This  tree  loves  warm  situations :  it  rises  very  high,  on  a  thick 
trunk,  and  spreads  out  strong,  large,  and  solid  branches.  Its  leaves 
are  wing-shaped,  somewhat  roundish,  three  inches  broad  or  more, 
and  rather  longer.  Its  flowers  are  milk  white  ;  the  fruit  is  in  pods, 
longer  and  thicker  than  a  finger,  somewhat  smoothed  and  flat ; 
sweet  and  edible.  Pliny  says  the  same.  The  Egyptians,  accord- 
ing to  Alpinus,  extract  from  these  pods  a  very  sweet  honey,  which 
the  Arabs  use  for  a  seasoning  instead  of  sugar.  This  honey  also  is 
employed,  instead  of  bee  honey  for  clysters;  and  some  even  give  it 
as  food  to  relax  the  bowels.  It  is  probable,  therefore,  that  the  pro- 
digal ate  this  fruit  in  a  time  of  scarcity,  as  we  might  do  acorns  in 
England. 


SECTION  III. 
G  U  M  S . 


FRANKINCENSE. 

THIS  was  an  aromatic  and  odoriferous  gum,  which  issued  from 
a  tree  not  certainly  known,  called  by  the  ancients  Thurifera.  Theo- 
phrastus  says,  its  leaves  resemble  those  of  a  pear-tree :  Pliny  varies 
in  his  description,  sometimes  conforming  to  Theophrastus,  but  at 
other  times  stating  it  to  be  a  kind  of  laurel,  and  even  a  kind  of  tur- 
pentine tree. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  incense — the  male  and  the  female ;  the 
former,  which  is  the  best,  is  round,  white,  fat,  and  very  inflamma- 
ble ;  the  latter  is  soft,  more  gummy,  and  less  agreeable  in  smell 
than  the  other.  Frankincense  formed  one  of  the  ingredients  in  the 
sacred  perfume  (Exod.  xxx.  34),  and  from  Isa.  Ix.  6,  and  Jer.  vi.20, 
we  learn  that  it  was  imported  into  Judea  from  Sheba. 

It  formed  one  part  of  the  priest's  duty,  under  the  Mosaic  econo- 
my, to  burn  incense  in  the  holy  apartment  of  the  temple,  on  the 
morning  and  evening  of  each  day;  and  on  the  great  day  of  atone- 
ment, at  the  moment  of  entering  into  the  lioly  of  holies,  the  high 
priest  was  required  to  throw  some  incense  on  the  fire  in  his  censer, 
that  the  cloud  occasioned  by  its  burning  might  cover  the  mercy 
seat.  (Lev.  xvi.  13),  lest,  perhaps,  his  curiosity  being  excited,  he 
might  be  induced  to  inspect  with  too  profane  a  curiosity  that  sym- 
bol of  the  Divine  Presence. 


GALBANUM. 

NEARLY  the  whole  of  those  articles  which  are  now  passing  under 
our  review,  entered  into  the  composition  of  the  holy  anointing  oil, 
or  the  sacred  perfumes,  as  described  in  Exod.  ch.  xxx.  The  fgal- 
banum  is  a  gum  issuing  from  an  umbelliferous  plant,  growing  in 
Persia  and  many  parts  of  Africa.  It  is  soft  like  wax,  and  when 
fresh  drawn,  white ;  but  it  afterwards  becomes  yellowish  or  red- 
dish. It  is  of  a  strong,  smell,  of  an  acrid  and  bitterish  taste,  inflam- 
mable in  the  manner  of  a  resin,  and  soluble  in  water  like  gum. 


308  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL   HISTORY. 


MYRRH. 

THIS  is  also  a  vegetable  production,  of  the  gum  or  resin  kind,  is- 
suing by  incision,  and  sometimes  spontaneously  from  the  trunk  and 
larger  branches  of  a  tree  growing  in  Egypt,  Arabia,  and  Abyssinia. 
Its  taste  is  bitter  and  acrid,  with  a  peculiar  aromatic  flavor,  but 
very  nauseous ;  its  smell  though  strong,  is  not  disagreeable.  Its 
Hebrew  name  mur,  whence  the  modern  name  is  derived,  is  evi- 
dently from  the  verb  mer,  to  be  bitter,  on  account  of  its  taste. 

Myrrh  is  believed  to  possess  the  power  of  resisting  putrefaction, 
and  hence  it  was  used  by  the  Jews  and  Egyptians  as  one  of  the 
principal  ingredients  for  embalming  the  dead,  John  xix.  39. 

There  has  been  conceived  to  be  some  discrepancy  between  Matt, 
xxvii.  34  and  Mark  xv.  23.  In  ihe  former  passage  it  is  stated  that, 
the  Jews  gave  as  drink  to  our  Saviour, « Vinegar  mixed  with  gall,' 
but  in  the  latter  it  is  stated  to  have  been  *  wine  mingled  with  myrrh.' 
In  order  to  remove  this  apparent  variance,  it  has  been  supposed 
that  the  two  evangelists  speak  of  two  different  potions,  or  that  Mat- 
thew, writing  in  Syriac,  made  use  of  the  word  mer,  which  signifies 
any  bitter  ingredient,  which  his  translator  mistook  for  mur,  myrrh. 
We  see  no  necessity,  however,  for  resorting  to  either  of  these  con- 
jectures in  order  to  reconcile  the  passages.  Grotius  has  shown 
upon  unexceptionable  evidence,  that  by  the  word  oxos,  which  is 
that  used  by  Matthew,  is  not  meant  vinegar,  but  a  very  inferior 
wine,  used  only  by  the  meanest  persons.  It  was  so  called  from  its 
acidity,  on  account  of  which  it  was  used  well  spiced  with  myrrh, 
frankincense,  and  sometimes  wormwood.  This  potion,  then,  Mark 
calls  *  wine  mixed  with  myrrh,'  or  '  myrrhed  wine  ;'  and  so  might 
it  be  termed  improprie.  It  appears  from  Galen  that  this  drink  pro- 
duces mental  turbation.  Hence,  wine  mixed  with  myrrh,  or  with 
infusions  of  intoxicating  herbs,  was,  through  motives  of  humanity, 
usually  administered  to  those  about  to  end  urea  painful  death.  Je- 
sus, however,  magnanimously  refuses  such  mitigation  of  his  suffer- 
ings ;  and  therefore,  after  tasting  it,  rejects  the  cup. 


S  T  A  C  T  E. 

THIS  is  usually  understood  to  be  the  prime  kind  of  myrrh*  The 
word  in  the  original  (Exod.  xxx.  34),  is  neteph,  which  properly  sig- 
nifies a  drop ;  and  hence  Mr.  Parkhurst  thinks  it  is  myrrh  distilling, 
dropping  from  the  tree  spontaneously — without  incision,-  Scheu- 
chzher  is  of  opinion  that  balm  or  balsam  is  intended,  'which  is  pro- 
perly a  drop.' 


PART   III. 


GEOLOGY. 


GEOLOGY. 


THE  term  Geology  is  derived  from  #e,  the  earth,  and  logos,  word, 
or  discourse ;  and  is  therefore  equivalent  to  a  treatise  concerning 
the  earth.  The  direct  ohject  of  this  science  is  to  unfold  the  solid 
substance  of  the  earth,  to  discover  hy  what  causes  its  several  parts 
have  been  either  arranged  or  disorganized,  and  from  what  opera- 
tions have  originated  the  general  stratification  of  its  materials,  the 
inequalities  of  its  surface,  and  the  vast  variety  of  bodies  that  enter 
into  its  composition. 

It  will  be  evident,  that  to  go  into  the  details  of  this  science  can 
form  no  part  of  the  object  of  this  work  ;  but  there  area  few  branch- 
es of  the  subject  which  ne  cannot  be  allowed  to  pass  over,  in  con- 
sequence of  their  intimate  connexion  with  some  important  particu- 
lars of  the  sacred  writings. 

There  is  no  necessity  to  revive  here  the  controversy  which  once 
disturbed  the  Grecian  schools,  concerning  the  eternity  of  matter,, 
and  the  spontaneous  formations  of  atoms.  Pythagoras,  Socratcsr 
Plato,  Aristotle,  and  others,  continued  to  maintain  the  barrier 
against  the  influx  of  principles  so  destructive  of  the  moral  happiness 
of  man.  Dr.  Cudwortli,  in  his  'True  Intellectual  System  of  the 
Universe,'  spent  the  better  periods  of  his  life  in  bringing  forward 
their  ancient  arguments,  connected  with  the  advantages  of  modern 
literature,  with  a  view  to  put  the  free-thinkers  of  his  time  entirely 
out  of  countenance.  Moralists,  poets,  and  divines,  acknowledge 
their  obligations  for  his  labors.  But  truth  must  still  be  clad  in  ar- 
mor. The  warring  passions  of  men  against  the  laws  of  hejiven, 
ever  raise  their  weapons  against  the  doctrines  of  revelation.  Every 
now  and  then,  a  new  enemy  approaches  our  flanks,  wishful  that  we 
should  not  perceive  his  manoeuvres  till  he  has  struck  the  blow.  He 
approaches  in  the  garb  of  science,  and  gains  our  ear  as  the  friend 
of  reason  and  of  truth.  Having  obtained  some  ascendancy  by  his 
wisdom,  and  pleased  us  by  his  eloquence,  he  slides  imperceptibly 
to  the  eternal  war  which  the  ocean  lias  waged  against  the  cliffs  and 
promontories,  and  to  the  immeasurable  periods  which  our  conti- 
nents have  endured. 

Now,  if  these  doctrines  be  really  founded,  and  by  fair  deductions, 
from  the  characters  of  the  earth,  then  Moses  is  in  error,  and  the  an- 
cient patriarchs  were  ignorant  of  the  origin  of  the  world;  then  the 
claims  of  revelation  are  nugatory,  and  impositions  on  the  credulity 
of  the  public.  If  the  history  of  nature  do  not  afford  arguments, 
and  speak  with  a  thousand  voices  of  conviction  to  the  mind, — if 
the  earth  itself  do  not  furnish  chronometers  of  a  comparative  juve- 


312  SCRIPTURE   NATURAL   HISTORY. 

nile  existence,  we  have  but  to  retire  in  vanquished  silence,  leaving 
the  palm  in  the  hand  of  infidelity.  Because,  if  matter  really  be 
eternal,  the  Being  to  whom  we  ascribe  the  glory  of  creation,  is  de- 
pendent on  matter,  and  no  longer  a  free,  but  a  necessary  agent, 
who  ought  not  to  be  adored,  because  he  cannot  hear  or  save. 

Just  the  reverse  of  this  is  the  Christian  faith.  We  believe  that 
the  Supreme  Being  alone  is  eternal,  independent  of  all  creatures, 
and  infinitely  happy  in  himself.  We  regard  the  creation  as  a  vol- 
untary overflowing  of  his  goodness,  that  intelligent  beings  might  be 
happy  in  the  contemplation  of  his  works,  and  in  the  enjoyment  of 
his  favor.  We  admire  the  creation  in  order  to  adore  the  Creator. 
We  see  all  nature  full  of  his  perfections.  In  the  immensity  of  the 
creatures,  and  in  the  variety  of  their  forms,  we  trace  the  wisdom  of 
a  God,  who,  in  the  formation  of  every  creature,  and  the  connexion 
of  cause  and  consequence,  had  every  possible  plan  before  him,  and 
has,  in  ail  cases  chosen  that  which  was  best.  Foreseeing  the  solar 
influence  of  the  torrid  zones,  he  has  provided  cooling  fruits  to  al- 
lay the  heats  of  fevers,  breezes  almost  constant  to  cool  the  air,  and 
provided  the  camel  with  an  upper  stomach,  to  hold  a  supply  of 
water  while  crossing  the  parched  deserts.  Equally  aware  of  the 
northern  cold,  he  has  there  provided  more  solid  food  for  man,  the 
wannest  wools  for  sheep  which  prefer  the  hills,  and  soft  and  open 
furs  for  beasts  which  pierce  the  thicket.  Every  creature  in  the 
mineral,  the  vegetable  and  the  animal  kingdom,  alike  discovers  his 
wisdom,  his  goodness,  and  his  care.  Hence  arises  the  impossibili- 
ty of  superadding  the  least  improvement  to  the  works  of  nature ; 
for  whatever  has  once  received  the  finish  of  God,  can  never  re- 
ceive the  smallest  augmentation  from  the  genius  of  man. 

The  contrast,  therefore,  between  the  believer  and  the  unbeliever 
is  wide  and  striking.  While  the  mere  geologist  contemplates  the 
mines  and  abysses  of  nature, — while  he  is  awed  by  the  falling  of 
precipitous  cliffs, — and  while  he  trembles  at  an  imaginary  sinking 
of  continents,  and  the  consequent  rise  of  others  out  of  the  sea,  he 
looks  into  the  abysses  of  his  tomb — the  tomb  into  which  he  is  about 
to  fall  and  rise  no  more:  whereas,  the  Christian  student  looks 
through  all  nature  with  cheerful  eyes.  When  he  sees  the  mineral 
kingdom  abounding  in  beauties,  beauties  which  in  their  kind  equal 
those  of  the  vegetable  and  animal  kingdom,  he  is  transported  with 
the  thought,  that  the  God  who  made  all  these  beauties  by  his  fiat, 
is  himself  infinitely  more  glorious  than  his  works.* 

From  the  surveys  which  have  been  made  of  the  solid  crust  of 
the  earth,  so  far  as  it  has  been  penetrated  into,  it  is  evident  that  the 
rudimental  materials  of  the  globe  existed  at  its  earliest  period,  in 
one  confused  and  liquid  mass  ;  that  they  were  afterwards  separated 
and  arranged  by  a  progressive  series  of  operations,  and  an  uniform 
system  of  laws,  the  more  obvious  of  which  appear  to  be  those  of 

*Sutcliffe's  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Geology,  pp.  4 — 6.    It  is  much  to  be  regretted 
that  this  excellent  little  work  is  not  more  generally  known. 


GEOLOGY.  313 

gravity  and  crystallization  ;  and  that  they  have  since  been  convuls- 
ed arid  dislocated  by  some  dreadful  commotion  and  inundation 
that  have  extended  to  every  region,  and  again  thrown  a  great  part 
of  the  organic  and  inorganic  creation  into  confusion. 

Hence  have  originated  the  Plutonic  and  the  Neptunian  hypothe- 
ses: the  former  ascribing  the  origin  of  the  world,  in  its  present  state, 
to  igneous  fusion  ;  the  latter,  to  aqueous  solution.  Both  of  these 
theories  are  of  a  very  early  date,  and  both  of  them  have  been  agita- 
ted in  ancient  as  well  as  in  modern  times,  with  considerable  warmth 
and  plausible  argument.  The  principal  champions  of  the  Plutonic 
system,  in  later  times,  are  Dr.  Hutton,  Professor  Play  fair,  and  Sir 
James  Hall ;  names  of  high  literary  rank,  but  most  powerfully  op- 
posed by  the  distinguished  authorities  of  Werner,  Saussure,  Kirwan, 
Cuvier,  and  Jameson,  who  are  supported  by  the  general  voice  of 
scientific  rnen. 

Of  these  theories,  the  Plutonic  is  perhaps  best  entitled  to  the  praise 
of  boldness  of  conception  and  unlimited  extent  of  view.  It  aspires, 
in  many  of  its  modifications,  not  only  to  account  for  the  present  ap- 
pearances of  the  earth,  but  for  that  of  the  universe  ;  and  traces  out 
a  scheme  by  which  every  planet,  or  system  of  planets,  may  be  con- 
tinued indefinitely,  and  perhaps  forever,  by  a  perpetual  series  of 
restoration  and  balance. 

With  ihis  system  the  Neptunian  forms  a  perfect  contrast.  It  is 
limited  to  the  earth,  and  to  the  present  appearances  of  the  earth. 
It  resolves  the  genuine  origin  of  tilings  into  the  operation  of  water ; 
and  while  it  admits  the  existence  of  subterranean  fires  to  a  certain 
extent,  and  that  several  of  the  phenomena  that  strike  us  most  forci- 
bly may  be  the  result  of  such  an  agency,  it  peremptorily  denies  that 
such  an  agency  is  the  sole  or  universal  cause  of  the  existing  state  of 
things,  or  that  it  could  possibly  be  rendered  competent  to  such  an 
effect. 

More  especially  should  we  feel  disposed  to  adhere  to  this  theory, 
from  its  general  coincidence  with  the  geology  of  the  Scriptures. 
The  Mosaic  narrative,  indeed,  with  bold  and  soaring  pinions,  takes 
a  comprehensive  sweep  through  the  vast  range  of  the  solar  system, 
if  not  through  that  of  the  universe;  and  in  its  history  of  the  simul- 
taneous origin  of  this  system,  touches  chiefly  upon  geology,  as  the 
part  most  interesting  to  ourselves;  but  so  far  as  it  enters  upon  this 
doctrine,  it  is  in  sufficiently  close  accordance  with  the  Neptunian 
scheme, — with  the  great  volume  of  nature  as  now  cursorily  dipped 
into.  The  narrative  opens  with  a  statement  of  three  distinct  facts, 
each  following  the  other  in  a  regular  series,  in  the  origin  of  the  vis- 
ible world.  First,  an  absolute  creation,  as  opposed  to  a  mere  re- 
modification  of  the  heaven  and  the  earth,  which  constituted  the 
earliest  step  in  the  crealive  process.  Secondly,  the  condition  of  the 
earth  when  it  was  thus  primarily  brought  into  bein<*,  which  was 
that  of  an  amorphous  or  shapeless  waste.  And  thirdly,  a  com- 
mencing effort  to  reduce  the  unfashioned  mass  to  a  condition  of 
order  arid  harmony.  '  In  the  beginning,'  says  the  sacred  historian, 


314  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

*  God  created  the  heavens  and  the  earth.  Ami  the  earth  was  with*' 
out  form  and  void :  and  darkness  was  upon  the  face  of  the  deep,  (or 
abyss). — Arid  the  Spirit  of  God  moved  upon  the/ace  of  the  waters? 

We  are  hence,  therefore,  necessarily  led  to  infer  that  the  first 
change  of  the  formless  chaos,  after  its  existence,  was  into  a  state  of 
universal  aqueous  solution ;  for  it  was  upon  the  surface  of  the  waters 
that  the  Divine  Spirit  commenced  his  operative  power  We  are 
next  informed,  that  this  chaotic  mass  acquired  shape,  not  instantane- 
ously, but  by  a  series  of  six  distinct  days  or  generations,  (that  is 
epochs),  as  Moses  afterwards  calls  them  (Gen.  ii.  4) :  and  apparent- 
ly through  the  agency  of  the  established  laws  of  gravity  and  crys- 
tallization, which  regulate  it  at  the  present  moment.  | 
It  tells  us,  that  during  the  first  of  these  days,  or  generations,  was 
evolved,  what,  indeed,  agreeably  to  the  laws  of  gravity,  must  have 
been  evolved  first  of  all,  the  matter  of  light  and  heat ;  of  all  materi- 
al substances  the  most  subtle  and  attenuate  ;  those  by  which  alone 
the  sun  operates,  and  has  ever  operated  upon  the  earth  and  the 
other  planets,  and  which  may  be  the  identical  substances  that  con- 
stitute his  essence.  And  it  tells  us,  also,  that  the  luminous  matter 
thus  evolved  produced  light  without  the  assistance  of  the  sun  or 
moon,  which  were  not  set  in  the  sky  or  firmament,  and  had  no 
rule  till  the  fourth  day,  or  generation  :  that  the  light  thus  produced 
flowed  by  tides,  and  alternately  intermitted,  constituting  a  single 
day  and  a  single  night  of  each  of  such  .epochs  or  generations,  what- 
ever their  length  might  be,  of  which  we  have  no  information  com- 
municated to  us. 

It  tells  us,  that  during  the  second  day,  or  generation,  up  rose  pro- 
gressively the  fine  fluids,  or  waters,  as  they  are  poetically  and 
beautifully  denominated,  of  the  firmament,  and  filled  the  blue  ethe- 
rial  void  with  a  vital  atmosphere.  That  during  the  third  day,  or 
generation,  the  waters  more  properly  so  called,  or  the  grosser  and 
compactor  fluids  of  the  general  mass)  were  strained  off  and  gather- 
ed together  into  the  vast  bed  of  the  ocean,  and  the  dry  land  began 
to  make  its  appearance,  by  disclosing  the  peaks  or  highest  points  of 
the  primitive  mountains ;  in  consequence  of  which  a  progress  instant- 
ly commenced  from  inorganic  matter  to  vegetable  organization,  the 
surface  of  the  earth,  as  well  above  as  under  the  waters,  being  covered 
with  plants  and  herbs  bearing  seeds  after  their  respective  kinds ;  thus 
laying  a  basis  for  those  carbonaceous  materials,  the  remains  of  veget- 
able matter,  which  are  occasionally  to  be  traced  in  some  of  the  layers 
or  formations  of  the  class  of  primitive  rocks,  (the  lowest  of  the  whole), 
without  a  single  particle  of  animal  relics  intermixed  with  them. 

It  tells  us,  that  during  the  fourth  day,  or  epoch,  the  sun  and 
moon,  now  completed,  were  set  in  the  firmament,  the  solar  system 
was  finished,  its  laws  were  established,  and  the  celestial  orrery  was 
put  into  play  ;  in  consequence  of  which  the  harmonious  revolutions 
of  signs  and  of  seasons,  of  days  and  of  years,  struck  up  for  the  first 
time  their  mighty  symphony.  That  the  fifth  period  was  allotted 
exclusively  to  the  formation  of  water-fowl,  and  the  countless  tribes 


GEOLOGY.  315 

of  aquatic  creatures ;  and,  consequently,  to  that  of  those  lowest 
ranks  of  animal  life,  testaceous  worms,  corals  and  other  zoophytes, 
whose  relics  are  alone  to  be  traced  in  the  second  class  of  rocks  or 
transition  formations,  and  still  more  freely  in  the  third  or  horizon- 
tal formations  ;  these  being  the  only  animals  as  yet  created,  since 
the  air,  and  the  water,  and  the  utmost  peaks  of  the  loftiest  moun- 
tains, were  the  only  part  as  yet  inhabitable.  It  tells  us,  stiU  continu- 
ing the  same  grand  and  exquisite  climax,  that  towards  the  close  of 
this  period,  the  mass  of  waters  having  sufficiently  retired  into  the 
deep  bed  appointed  for  them,  the  sixth  and  concluding  period  was 
devoted  to  the  formation  of  terrestrial  animals ;  and,  last  of  alj,  as 
the  masterpiece  of  the  whole,  to  that  of  man  himself. 

Such  is  the  beautiful,  but  literal  progression  of  the  creation,  ac- 
cording to  the  Mosaic  account,  as  must  be  perceived  by  every  one 
who  will  carefully  peruse  it  for  himself. 

Thus,  in  progressive  order,  uprose  the  stupendous  system  of  the 
world :  the  bright  host  of  morning  stars  shouted  together  on  its 
birth-day  ;  and  the  eternal  Creator  looked  down  with  complacency 
on  the  finished  fabric,  and  '  saw  that  it  was  good.' 

Before  we  notice  the  changes  induced  on  the  earth  by  the  deluge, 
it  is  proper  to  meet  the  objection  made  by  some  geologists  against 
the  Mosaic  history,  derived  from  the  marble  tablets,  which,  in  ma- 
ny instances  exhibit  broken  shells,  and  fossil-teeth,  evidently  worn 
•with  mastication.  To  this  it  is  replied,  First,  that  testaceous  mar- 
bles are  never  found  at  any  great  distance  from  the  present  level  of 
the  sea.  Secondly,  that  from  the  creation  to  the  deluge,  the  sea,  as 
now,  would  make  war  on  promontories,  and  deposit  her  erosions  on 
calmer  shores.  Thirdly,  that  the  shells  so  covered  in  places  where 
the  under  strata  were  disposed  to  promote  the  formation  of  mar- 
bles, by  the  ascension  of  the. marmorous  fluid,  would  unite,  with  the 
matter  so  laid  on,  and  concrete  into  the  beauteous  masses  in  which 
they  are  now  found.  Consequently,  the  noble  author  of  The  Beau- 
ties of  Christianity  seems  injudicious,  in  the  ascription  of  a  mutilat- 
ed and  imperfect  work  to  the  all-perfect  Being.  *  The  very  day,' 
Jie  says,  '•  that  the  ocean  poured  forth  his  first  waves,  he  doubtless 
laved  rocks  already  worn  by  billows,  shores  strewed  with  fragment!- 
of  shell-fish,  roaring  gtilphs  and  naked  cliffs,  which  protected  tl 
sinking  coasts  against  the  ravages  of  the  waters.' 

In  other  places  the  turbid  deposits  of  the  sea,  containing  salts, 
magnesia,  and  marine  acid,  holding  a  considerable  quantity  of  min- 
erals in  a  state  of  solution,  would,  attracted  by  the  combining  and 
concreting  essence  of  the  under  strata,  repeat  all  the  other  forma- 
tions of  primitive  nature,  though  in  smaller  masses.  To  these  must 
be  added  the  lava,  which  in  other  places  was  rolled  on  the  vallies 
by  volcanoes,  and  the  bursting  of  mountains,  where  the  sea  had  a 
rapid  access  to  their  latent  fires.  These  considerations,  respecting 
the  state  of  the  antediluvian  earth,  may  assist  the  lovers  of  nature 
to  account  for  the  formation  of  many  alluvial  rocks  and  strata,  which 
we  cannot  with  confidence  say  were  formed  since  the  deluge,  of 


316  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

Noah.  It  is  a  fact,  demonstrated  by  the  study  of  nature,  and  con- 
firmed by  innumerable  experiments  of  chemistry,  that  the  same 
aluminous  warp  of  the  sea  would,  on  one  soil,  form  marble,  on  an- 
other gypsum,  on  another  alum,  rocks,  &c.  but  generally  would  re- 
main in  schistusand  clays,  when  reposed  on  the  more  neutral  bases 
of  rocks  and  sands. 

The  striations,  in  alluvial  marbles,  which  cut  one  another  ob- 
liquely, and  form  the  mass  into  diamonds,  appear  to  have  been 
Ibrmed  by  the  action  of  the  sun  upon  the  shores  during  the  neap 
tides.  The  warp  on  mud  has  been  observed  to  dry  and  break  into 
oblique  fissures ;  the  upper  surface  to  break  into  diamonds,  as  in 
marble  columns,  and  become  considerably  indurated  by  the  solar 
heat.  These  fissures,  though  filled  up  by  the  next  spring  tide, 
would  not  be  so  closed  as  to  exclude  the  pores  and  channels  of  the 
water;  and  waters  continuing  to  pass,  would  form  the  white,  or 
the  mineral  streaks  of  the  marble,  as  is  farther  demonstrated  by  the 
hollow  stalactites  pendant  from  the  roof  of  caverns,  and  of  ruins; 
by  the  quartose  veins  in  schistus  or  blue  slate ;  and  by  the  rapid 
manner  in  which  vegetables  are  changed  to  stone,  in  petrifying 
wells.  Also  where  the  mineral  fluids  and  marine  acids  predomi- 
nated in  those  clays,  they  would  curdle  and  variegate  the  marble 
tints  as  they  now  appear,  in  all  the  variety  of  dappled  hues.  The 
waters  of  the  ocean  have,  in  many  places,  the  power  of  producing 
^  coral  petrifactions  to  a  very  great  extent.  Sir  Hans  Sloane  reports 
of  a  ship  sunk  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  containing  silver,  that  after 
thirty  years,  on  coming  to  dive  for  the  treasure,  they  found  the  out- 
side and  inside  of  the  ship,  and  all  the  spaces  between  the  chests» 
so  encrusted  with  a  coral  matter,  and  so  extremely  hard,  as  to  be 
difficult  to  break. 

Consequently,  the  waters  thus  descending  from  the  summit  of 
mountains  to  depths  which  no  miner  can  penetrate  ;  and  repeating 
in  the  fissures  and  cavities  of  the  primitive  earth  to  the  time  of  the 
deluge,  all  the  formations  of  nature,  and  still  continuing  to  do  the 
same,  must  make  men  cautious  of  objecting  to  the  Mosaic  history, 
because  the  alluvial  impressions  of  vegetable  and  animal  fossils  oft- 
en exist  in  rocks  and  mountains  accounted  primitive. 

We  now  proceed  to  notice  the  desolations,  changes,  and  new 
formations  which  the  universal  deluge  effectuated  on  the  surface 
and  upper  strata  of  the  earth. 

Of  the  event  itself,  we  are  assured  beyond  the  possibility  of  a 
doubt.  We  have  no  difficulty  in  proving  it,  except  from  a  super- 
abundance of  proof.  It  is  asserted,  both  by  sacred  and  profane  his- 
torians, how  disguised  and  disfigured  soever  the  latter  accounts  may 
be.  Plutarch,  in  his  book  on  the  industry  of  animals,  mentions 
both  the  ark  and  the  dove.  The  account  Ovid  has  given  of  the 
flood,  in  the  reign  of  Deucalion,  which  drowned  all  Thessalia,  and 
from  which  the  king  and  his  wife  were  saved  on  Mount  Parnas- 
sus, seems  to  be  a  confused  tradition  between  the  deluge  of  Noah, 
and  a  partial  inundation. 


GEOLOGY.  317 

The  etymology  of  the  name  Deucalion,  from  deuteros,  the  second, 
and  kaleo,  to  call,  imports  the  recalling  of  society  a  second  time  in- 
to existence  under  the  patriarch  Noah.  It  was  usual  with  ancient 
nations  to  give  new  names  to  princes,  expressive  of  auspicious 
events ;  a  custom  not  yet  wholly  discontinued.  The  landing  of 
Deucalion  with  his  wife  on  Mount  Parnassus  is  but  a  confusion  of 
the  tradition  concerning  the  resting  of  the  ark  on  Mount  Ararat. 
The  deluge  not  only  covered  both  these  mountains,  but  has  left 
stratifications  on  all  the  higher  mountains,  as  far  as  the  snow  will 
allow  us  to  ascend.  In  Switzerland,  Count  de  Saussure  asserts, 
that  marine  petrifactions  are  not  found  higher  than  two  thousand 
eight  hundred  feet,  (equivalent  to  about  three  thousand  English 
feet,)  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  in  caverns  sometimes  to  the 
depth  of  twelve  hundred  feet;  yet  there  the  summits  of  the  hills  ex- 
hibit the  desolations  of  the  waters  in  characters  which  command 
universal  assent. 

The  moral  cause  of  this  unexampled  catastrophe  is  wholly  attri- 
buted by  the  Hebrew  historian  to  the  great  and  incorrigible  wick- 
edness of  the  antediluvians.  And  what  could  be  more  agreeable  to 
the  Divine  perfections,  when  the  apostacy  was  total ;  when  all  flesh 
had  corrupted  its  way ;  when  the  sons  of  the  great  seized  the  daugh- 
ters of  the  poor :  when  the  earth  was  filled  with  violence  ;  when 
the  prophesying  and  translation  of  Enoch  had  no  effect;  when  the 
preaching  of  Noah,  and  the  building  of  the  ark  excited  scoffing 
rather  than  reformation ;  what  could  be  more  agreeable  to  the  per- 
fections of  God,  than  to  save  the  one  righteous  family,  and  wash 
away  the  filthy  inhabitants  of  the  earth  ? 

The  physical  cause  is  attributed  by  Dr.  Halley,  and  two  or  three 
other  astronomers,  to  the  near  approach  of  a  comet  towards  the 
earth,  which,  Mr.  Whiston  thinks,  descended  on  the  plane  of  the 
ecliptic.  To  these  suppositions  real  difficulties  may  be  opposed, 
which  seem  insuperable. — Why  has  not  the  same  comet  returned, 
and  often  returned,  in  so  great  a  lapse  of  time  ?  Why  are  the 
strata  of  alluvial  earth  found  too  numerous  to  agree  with  the  num- 
ber of  tides  which  could  take  place  during  the  short  time  that  the 
earth  could  remain  in  the  neighborhood  of  a  comet  ?  Nor  should 
it  escape  remark,  that  a  man,  who  calmly  investigates  the  bounds 
prescribed  to  the  ocean,  and  the  precision  of  gravity  in  the  flux  and 
reflux  of  the  sea,  can  never  be  brought  to  believe  that  the  prodi- 
gious tides  which  ravaged  the  old  world  could  be  attracted  to  over- 
flow the  hills,  without  a  special  command  from  the  God  of  nature. 

The  elder  Rabbins,  mostly  followed  by  the,  Christian  fathers, 
commenting  on  those  words  of  Moses, '  The  fountains  of  the  great 
deep  were  broken  up,'  suppose  an  eruption  of  latent  waters,  which 
covered  the  earth's  surface  to  the  elevation  of  the  mountains.  But 
such  an  elevation,  instead  of  stratifying  the  earth,  as  we  now  find 
it,  would  only  harden  its  surface  by  an  immense  pressure.  When 
a  spring  tide  retires,  we  every  where  find  the  sands  so  closed  by 
the  pressure  of  not  more  than  forty  feet  of  water,  as  scarcely  to  be 


318  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

indented  by  the  galloping  of  a  horse.  Consequently,  the  flux  and 
reflux  of  prodigious  tides,  seem  the  only  theory  on  which  the  stu- 
dents of  nature  can  account  for  the  stratification  of  the  earth.  And, 
as  the  moon  now  governs  the  variation  of  the  tides,  were  it  lawful 
to  indulge  in  conjecture,  it  might  be  thought  that  God,  who  employs 
means  the  most  natural  and  easy,  was  pleased  to  drown  the  world 
by  an  increase  of  elipticity  in  her  orbit. 

The  Mosaic  history  of  the  deluge  has  been  carefully  examined  by 
Lightfoot,  who  equalled  the  Rabbins  in  Hebrew  literature.  The 
whole  period,  according  to  him,  comprised  a  solar  year.  Forty-six 
days  of  this  period  were  spent  in  conveying  stores  and  provisions 
for  the  ark ;  arid  seven  in  receiving  the  beasts  and  cattle.  The 
rain  began  to  fall  on  the  18th  day  of  the  Hebrew  month  of  March- 
esvan,  and  continued  forty  days.  During  the  fall  of  the  rain,  it  is 
thought  that  the  atmosphere  was  much  darkened,  because  it  was 
afterwards  promised  that  day  and  night  should  no  more  cease, 
Gen.  viii.  22.  The  waters  or  lifles  continued  to  increase  for  one 
hundred  and  fifty  days.  The  decrease  commenced  on  the  first 
day  of  Sivan,  an d  continued  one  hundred  and  twenty  days.  Thus 
we  trace  the  counsel  of  heaven,  and  not  the  accidental  approach  of 
a  comet,  in  allowing  Noah  time  to  reap  the  harvest  before  the  rain  ; 
and  in  bringing  him  out  of  the  ark  at  a  season  proper  for  following 
the  waters  with  the  seeds  for  the  succeeding  year. 

The  changes  and  ravages  of  nature,  correspond  with  the  impet- 
uous force  of  the  flood.  Travellers  and  geologists  are  all  agreed, 
that  in  every  continent  and  island,  the  mountains,  the  hills,  the  de- 
clivities, are,  in  places  without  number,  left  desolatetl  of  earth, 
craggy  and  bare  ;  and  many  of  the  rocks  of  bolder  hills,  and  salient 
promontories,  appear  to  have  been  detached  to  a  considerable  dis- 
tance from  the  elevated  summits  to  which  thry  once  belonged. 
Against  promontories  and  bolder  shores,  the  flux  and  reflux  of  the 
tides  would  be  so  impetuous,  as,  in  many  places,  to  undermine 
their  base,  and  the  part  so  undermined  would  fall  prostrate  into  the 
sea,  leaving  the  side  from  which  it  was  disjoined  by  caverns  and 
fissures,  a  mural  and  terrific  precipice,  to  brave  through  future  age* 
the  incessant  war  of  the  ocean.  M.  de  Saussure  has  described  the 
precipice  of  the  calcareous  rocks  of  Mont  Brezon,  in  Switzerland, 
as  the  most  sublime  and  terrific  he  had  ever  seen ;  and  he  traced 
the  action  of  water  200  toises  higher  than  the  lake  of  Geneva. 
Bishop  Pontoppedon  tells  us,  in  his  history  of  Norway,  that  the 
•water  close  to  the  rocks  is  generally  three  or  four  hundred  fathoms 
deep.  In  Floge  Creek,  he  adds,  no  bottom  can  be  found  with  a 
line  of  a  thousand  fathoms.  Nordall  Creek  is  reported  to  be  nine 
hundred  fathoms  in  depth ;  and  other  Creeks  of  Norway,  which 
indent  themselves  ten  leagues  within  the  land,  continue  to  have 
three  or  four  hundred  fathoms  of  water.  The  bottoms  also  of  those, 
creeks  rese*rnble  the  land  in  hills,  dales,  and  rugged  rocks. — Seve- 
ral of  our  English  navigators  give  us  similar  accounts  of  creeks  in 
the  western  coast  of  North  America,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  Nootka 


GEOLOGY.  3IO> 

Sound.  How  tremendous  must  be  the  idea  of  the  deluge  descend- 
ing from  promontories  so  elevated !  How  profound  must  be  the 
guymes  and  abysses  they  would  work  by  the  impetuosity  of  their 
cataracts !  But  it  is  also  to  be  remarked,  that  all  these  contour 
and  daring  cliffs  have  remained  much  the  same  since  the  deluge  ; 
the  seas,  as  is  evident  from  topographical  history,  have  made  few 
advances,  except  against  the  promontories  and  shores  composed  of 
softer  earths. 

It  is  therefore  apparent,  that  whatever  earths  the  impetuous  tides1 
of  the  deluge  washed  from  one  place,  they  must  of  necessity  deposit 
in  another.  This  is  an  invariable  law  of  the  ocean.  Hence  one- 
tide  would  bring  gravel  and  marine  exuviae,  already  worn  by  the 
actions  of  the  billows  rolling  on  the  shore  ;  another  would  bring 
sand,  and  a  third  clay.  But  though  all  alluvial  strata  were  formed 
of  the  detritus  of  the  old  earths,  they  would  repeat  the  first  forma- 
tion by  combination.  They  would  change  into  a  variety  of  silica,, 
rocks,  marls,  and  minerals  ;  while  others,  falling  on  more  neutral 
earths,  would  remain  in  their  primitive  state.  Thus  also  the  deeper- 
strata  of  the  earth  would  be  laid  on  while  the  waters  were  rising  ; 
and  all  the  more  loamy  earths,  by  the  gradual  retreat  and  subsiding' 
of  the  waters.  These  long  continued  actions  and  deposits  of  the 
water  are  a  sure  guide  in  accounting  for  all  the  conformations  and' 
heterogeneous  masses  found  in  most  parts  of  the  alluvial  earth: 

This  idea,  that  the  deeper  alluvial  strata  were  laid  on  by  the 
increasing  tides,  assists  us  to  account  for  the  deposit  of  coal.  This 
is  confessedly  a  vegetable  fossil;  and,  from  the  purity  or  its  beds, 
we  have  the*  justest  grounds  of  conclusion,  that  it  once  floated" 
upon  the  sea.  When  analyzed,  charcoal  constitutes  the  principal 
part  of  its  base.  Acidulous  waters,  bitumen,  and  hydrogen,  it  con- 
tains in  various  proportions.  Its  combustible  qualities,  and  its 
ashes,  may  also  be  retraced  to  vegetable  origin.  Both  the  bovey 
coal,  and  the  coal  which  swiftly  burns  to  white  ashes,  exhibit  the 
fibres  of  wood.  The  argilla,  and  the  animal  substances,  of  necessi- 
ty mixed  in  the  mass,  have  been  very  much  converted  into  its  own 
essence,  as  is  usual  in  other  combinations  of  nature.  Its  color  is 
derived  from  iron,  which  it  powerfully  attracts  ;  and  no  one  could 
doubt  of  this,  if  he  would  consider  the  quantity  of  iron  contained' 
in  all  vegetables,  or  how  powerfully  this  mineral  changes  vegetable- 
dyes  to  black.  The  various  families  of  coal,  whether  of  jet,  com- 
mon, or  cannele,  seem  to  derive  their  distinction  from  the  different 
kinds  of  timber,  and  from  contiguous  earth  ;  but  the  more  bitumin- 
ous obviously  participate  of  a  larger  quantity  of  animal  substances, 
which  would  also  float  on  the  waters. 

The  floating  masses  of  timber,  eradicated  by  the  deluge,  and 
locked  by  the  roots  and  branches,  and  much  increased  by  vegeta- 
bles, as  well  from  the  sea  as  the  land,  were  assuredly  laid  on  by 
retiring  tides*  in  those  calmer  bosoms  of  the  earth,  where  the  sea 
was  disposed  to  make  her  deposits.  This  is  demonstrated  from 
the  stratification  of  the  earth  above  and  below  the  coalj  and; 


320  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

from  works  of  art  being  occasionally  found  in  the  mass.  Pennant 
reports,  that  the  ancient  Welsh  found  a  flint  axe  in  the  midst  of  a 
bed  of  coal.  It  is  not  questioned  but  the  axe  had  been  lodged  in  a 
tree,  and  floated  there  by  the  ocean.  In  all  places  where  the  under 
stratum  is  horizontal,  the  coal  is  horizontal;  and  where  it  is 
inclined,  as  is  mostly  the  case,  the  coal  is  inclined ;  but  where  it  is 
rugged  with  rocks,  the  coal  participates  of  the  inequalities,  being 
broken  into  gauls.  In  such  places  the  miner  suddenly  loses  his 
bed ;  which,  however,  he  finds  again  on  working  round. 

But  coal,  it  will  be  said,  often  lies  deep,  and  far  below  the  level 
of  the  sea ;  and,  that  whatever  weeds  the  tide  may  leave  in  bays, 
they  are  raised  again  by  the  next  tide,  and  mostly  carried  away. 
Near  Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  the  Montague  main  colliery  is  more 
than  one  hundred  and  twenty  fathoms  from  the  surface,  and  cover- 
ed with  seventy-four  strata.  The  Staffordshire  coal  lies  on  a 
greater  declivity,  and  nearer  the  surface.  How  deep  the  coal 
descends  is  unknown,  for  the  pits  are  not  worked  deeper  than 
seventy  fathoms. 

All  these  considerations  may  be  regarded  as  difficulties  rather 
than  objections.  In  studying  the  situation  of  the  Staffordshire  coal, 
the  following  solution  presented  itself  to  the  mind  of  Mr.  Sutcliffe, 
which  appears  sufficiently  satisfactory.  First  that  the  vast  flotilla 
of  vegetables  and  timber,  being  completely  locked,  roots  and 
branches,  by  the  undulations  of  the  sea,  would  be  deposited  on  the 
soft  surface'left  by  the  preceding  tide.  Secondly,  that  the  various 
heath  plants,  which  contain  more  iron  than  any  other,  with  all 
other  kinds  of  vegetable,  and  often  animal  substances,  would  sink 
downward  among  the  bodies  of  the  trees,  so  as  to  form  one  mass, 
and  greatly  press  the  roots  and  branches  into  the  soft  earth.  Con- 
sequently the  next  tide,  recoiling  with  indescribable  impetuosity, 
and  being  as  turbid  as  the  water  could  bear,  could  not  possibly 
raise  the  vegetable  mass  locked  in  itself,  and  now  adhering  to  the 
earth,  until  the  waters  were  considerably  advanced  on  a  shore, 
which  dipped  one  yard  every  fourth,  as  is  here  the  case :  mean- 
while, the  turbid  matter,  among  the  calm  produced  by  the  roots 
and  branches,  would  make  so  rapid  a  deposit,  that  before  the 
waters  were  high  enough  to  raise  the  flotilla,  the  mass  under  these 
circumstances,  would,  almost  instantly,  become  completely  entomb- 
ed by  an  incumbent  stratum.  The  next  tide  would  lay  a  second 
stratum ;  and  every  third,  fourth,  or  fifth  tide,  seems  to  have  brought 
a  new  flotilla  of  timber,  and  eft  it  in  the  western  bosom  of  the 
mountain,  which  has  become  entombed  and  stratified  as  the  for- 
mer. In  this  manner,  so  far  as  the  tremendous  operations  of  the 
deluge  can  be  traced,  in  the  short  space  of  two  leagues,  fifty  or 
sixty  beds  of  coal  were  laid  on  between  Burslem  and  Mowcop,  as 
immense  treasures  for  future  times.  The  number  of  strata  be- 
tween each  bed,  apparently  indicates  the  number  of  tides  which 
rolled  against  this  primitive  mountain,  between  the  arrival  of  each 
flotilla.  On  the  eastern  declivity  of  this  mountain,  where  the 


GEOLOGY.  321 

Trent  has  its  source,  the  coal  dips  the  opposite  way,  varying  in  all 
places,  according  to  the  flood- washed  shores  on  which  the  timber 
was  deposed.  How  weak  then  must  be  the  argument  of  Mr. 
Kirwan,  that  bovey  coal  is  coeval  with  the  creation,  because  calca- 
reous rocks  also  contain  27  parts  of  a  100  of  carbon.  No  doubt, 
all  the  families  of  coal,  deficient  of  carbon,  and  veiy  slaty,  are 
largely  mixed  with  the  turbid  deposits  of  the  deluge. 

Our  attention  must  next  be  directed  to  the  formations  of  nature, 
in  the  alluvial  or  newly  stratified  earth,  in  which  all  the  laws  of 
affinity  and  attraction  would  act  with  full  effect.  It  is,  however,  to 
be  remarked,  that  much  of  the  matter  laid  on  by  the  deluge,  as  rocks, 
flint,  and  minerals,  being  already  formed,  are  the  detritus  of  former 
strata,  not  liable  to  change.  Yet  the  heterogeneous  masses  would 
produce  an  immensity  of  formations,  by  the  conflict  of  their  compo- 
nent parts.  These,  though  weaker  in  the  resources  of  energy  than 
at  the  first  creation,  would  be  the  same  in  operation.  The  waters 
oozing  through  every  strata,  from  their  subterraneous  currents, 
and  the  atmospheric  air,  every  where  attendant  on  those  cur- 
rents, would  aid  th.e  crystallizations  of  the  earth.  Every  essence 
of  nature  would  collect  and  concrete  in  the  struggle.  The  whole 
alluvial  masses  would  therefore  change  in  color,  change  in  quali- 
ty, change  in  character,  and  diversify  in  species.  The  silica  would 
granulate  in  all  dimensions,  and  assume  their  tints,  as  in  the  first 
creations ;  the  more  calcareous  masses  would  concrete  into  the  ya- 
jrious  species  of  limestone ;  white  the  more  neutralized  alumine 
nyoHkl  vary  ite  .colons  and  qualities,  as  it  participated  of  surround- 
ing substances.  The  whole  would  then,  by  the  expansion  of  latent 
heat,  and  the  diminution  of  moisture,  break  by  fissures  into  masses, 
as  they  now  are  found  to  exist.* 

But  the  researches  of  modern  geologists  have  given  abundant 
confirmation  to  sacred  history,  not  only  with  respect  to  the  origin 
of  the  earth,  and  the  universal  deluge,  but  also  with  regard  to  the 
age  of  the  earth.  Early  in  the  last  century,  and  indeed,  until  with- 
in a  few  years,  several  geological  phenomena  were  considered,  by 
superficial  inquirers,  as  indications  that  the  creation  of  the  globe  we 
inhabit  was  an  event  much  more  remote  than  the  sacred  history 
represents  it:  the  same  theorists  even  went  so  far  as  to  profess  a 
belief  that  it  existed  from  eternity.  These  opinions  were  kept  in 
countenance  only  so  long  as  geology  was  in  its  infancy.  Every  suc- 
cessive step  which  has  been  taken  in  the  improvement  of  this  sci- 
ence has  served  to  show  their  fallacy.  The  investigations  of  the 
latest  and  most  accurate  philosophers  have  afforded  proof,  little 
short  of  demonstration,  that  the  earth,  at  least  in  its  present  form,  f 

*  Sutcliffe's  Introduction  to  Geology,  pp.  20—29. 

Mr.  Faber,  in  order  to  meet  the  objections  of  some  of  our  geologists,  which  nre  found- 
ed on  the  fossil  phenomena  occurring  in  the  st.  rata  of  the  earth,  maintains,  that  the  six 
dimiurgic  day*  were  periods  of  vast  but  uncert  ain  length,  during  which  some  mighty  re- 
volution occurred,  to  which  the  origin  of  there  strata  are  to  be  attributed,,  rather  than  to 
the  deluge  of  Noah. —  Treatise  onthe  Three  Dispensations^  £.  i.  cA.  3» 


322  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

cannot  have  existed  longer  than  appears  from  the  Mosaic  account. 
The  absolute  falsehood  of  many  positive  assertions,  and  specious 
inferences  hostile  to  the  scripture  chronology,  has  been  evinced  : 
and  thence  has  arisen  a  new  presumptive  argument  in  support  of 
the  authenticity  of  that  volume,  which  contains  the  most  ancient 
and  the  most  precious  of  all  records.* 

*  Kirwan's  Geological  Essays,  and  Miller's  Retrospect,  cited  by  Shaw,  Panorama  of 
Nature,  p.  14.  Mr.  Townsend,  in  his  '  Geological  and  Mineralogical  Researches,'  has  pre- 
sented us  with  some  excellent  GEOLOGICAL  CHRONOMETERS,  as  Deltas,  Lakes,  Estuaries, 
Drift  Sands,  and  Mouldering  Cliffs.  From  all  these  chronometers,  consisting  in  effects 
which  result  from  known  causes,  operating  since  the  existence  of  our  continents,  and 
of  which  the  progress  within  known  times  is  indicated  by  monuments,  he  justly  draws 
this  conclusion,  that  our  continents  are  not  of  a  more  remote  antiquity  than  has  been  as- 
signed to  them  by  the  sacred  historian  in  the  beginning  of  his  Pentateuch. — p.  403. 


CHAPTER  I. 
STONES. 


WE  shall  restrict  our  examination  to  those  stones  specifically 
mentioned  in  the  Bible ;  and  we  have  cause  to  regret  the  scantiness 
of  our  information  on  nearly  all  of  them.  As  they  are  of  few  kinds, 
and  extremely  difficult  to  be.  identified,  we  shall  attempt  no  scien- 
tific arrangement,  but  take  them  in  alphabetical  order. 


ADAMANT. 

THIS  is  one  of  the  names,  given  to  the  diamond,  but  all  we  can 
collect  from  those  passages  of  Scripture  in  which  the  shemiris  men- 
tioned ( Jer.  xvii.  13 ;  Ezek.  iii.  9  ;  Zech.  vii.  12),  is,  that  it  is  some 
very  hard  substance.  Scheuchzer  thinks  it  was  the  smiris,  which 
was  used  for  engraving,  polishing,  and  cutting  other  hard  stones 
and  glasses. 


AGATE. 

THE  word,  shebo,  occurs  only  in  Exod.  xxviii.  19,  and  xxix.  12  $ 
and  interpreters  are  pretty  generally  agreed,  that  it  denotes  the  agate, 
which  derives  its  name  from  the  river  Achates,  in  Sicily,  in  the 
vicinity  of  which  the  ancients  obtained  it  in  considerable  quanti- 
ties. 

The  agate  is  a  semi-transparent  stone  of  the  quartz  family,  *  in 
which  Nature  seems  to  divert  herself,'  says  Lamy,  '  with  the  differ- 
ent things  she  imprints  upon  them.'  It  is  well  known  that  the 
agates  change  or  vary  their  appearance  without  end ;  and  Parkhurst 
inclines  to  think,  that,  shebo  may  be  a  name  of  the  species  from  this 
circumstance,  q.  d.  The  varier  ? 

It  must  be  remarked,  that  agate  is  not,  as  some  writers  imagine, 
a  simple  mineral:  it  is  composed  of  various  species  of  the  quartz, 
family,  intimately  blended  together.  Of  these  minerals,  sometimes 
only  two,  and  sometimes  three  or  more,  occur  in  the  same  agate  ; 


324  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

and  hence  its  varieties  are  extremely  numerous.  The  figures  pro- 
duced by  these  combinations  are  sometimes  very  curious ;  but  in 
some  instances  the  variations  are  suspected  to  be  the  work  of  art. 
One  is  mentioned  in  the  church  of  St.  Mark,  at  Venice,  which  had 
the  representation  of  a  king's  head,  surrounded  by  a  diadem.  On 
another  was  represented  a  man  in  the  attitude  of  running.  But  the 
most  remarkable  of  all,  says  Bingly,  seems  to  have  been  one  which 
contained  a  representation  of  the  nine  Muses,  with  Apollo  in  the 
midst  of  them ! 

In  Isa.  liv.  12,  and  E/ek.  xxvii.  16,  our  translators  have  rendered 
another,  and  a  different  word  (bedecked)  by  agate :  bishop  Lowth 
thinks  it  is  the  ruby,  and  Mr.  Park  hurst  the  pyropus ;  the  latter  ver- 
sion seems  best  to  correspond  with  the  Hebrew  name,  which  is  from 
a  root  signifying  to  propel,  dart  forth. 


ALABASTER, 

THIS  is  a  kind  of  sulphat  of  lime,  or  of  lime  in  combination  with 
sulphuric  acid,  which  has  a  shining  and  glittering  texture  ;  and  m 
of  white  color,  tinged  with  grey  or  red,  and  sometimes  stripped, 
veined,  or  spotted.  Being  considerably  softer  than  marble,  it  is 
more  easily  worked,  and  was  used  by  the  ancients,  as  by  ourselves, 
for  the  manufacture  of  vases  and  other  ornamental  vessels.  Such 
is  sometimes  the  transparency  of  alabaster,  that  it  has  been  employ- 
ed for  windows ;  and  at  Florence,  there  is  now  a  church  which 
receives  its  light  through  the  medium  of  this  substance. 

Alabaster  is  mentioned  only  in  Matt,  xxvk  6,  7,  and  the  parallel 
passages :  *  Now  when  Jesus  was  in  Bethany,  in  the  house  of  Si- 
mon the  leper,  there  cmne  unto  him  a  woman  having  an  alabaster 
box  of  very  precious  ointment,  arid  poured  it  on  his  head  as  he  sat.? 
Mark  adds,  'she  brake  the  box,'  which  circumstance  has  given  rise  to 
some  discussion.  Dr.  A.  Clarke  translates  the  clause,  *  she  brake 
the  seal;1  remarking,  that  this  is  the  best  translation  he  can  give  of 
the  place,  and  that  he  gives  it  for  these  reasons :  First,  it  is  not  like- 
ly that  a  box,  exceedingly  precious  in  itself,  should  be  broken  to 
get  out  its  contents ;  Secondly,  the  broken  pieces  would  be  very  in- 
convenient, if  not  injurious,  to  the  head  of  our  Lord,  and  to  th« 
hands  of  the  woman  ;  Thirdly,  it  would  not  be  easy  effectually  to 
separate  the  oil  from  the  broken  pieces ;  and,  Fourthly,  it  was  a 
custom  in  Eastern  countries  to  seal  the  bottles  with  wax  that  held 
the  perfumes,  so  that,  to  come  at  their  contents,  no  more  was  ne- 
cessary than  to  break  the  seal,  'which  this  woman  appears  to  have 
done ;  and  when  the  seal  was  thus  broken,  she  had  no  more  to  do 
than  to  pour  out  the  liquid  ointment,  which  she  could  not  hav« 
done  had  she  broken  the  bottle.  The  bottles  which  contain  th« 
attar  of  roses,  which  come  from  the  East,  lie  adds,  are  sealed  in 
this  manner. 


AMIANTHUS.  325 


AMETHYST. 

THERE  seems  to  be  no  reason  for  doubting  the  propriety  of  ren- 
dering the  Hebrew  achlemeh,  and  the  Greek  amethystos  by  amethyst. 
Pliny  says  the  reason  assigned  for  its  name  is,  that  though  it  ap- 
proaches to  the  color  of  wine,  it  falls  short  of  it,  and  stops  at  a  vio- 
let color.  Others  think  it  is  called  amethyst,  because  its  color  re- 
sembles wine  mixed  with  water;  and  in  this  view,  also,  it  derives 
its  name  from  a  negative,  and  methy,  wine. 

The  oriental  amethyst  is  an  extremely  rare  gem.  If  heated  it 
loses  its  color,  and  becomes  transparent,  in  which  state  it  is  hardly 
distinguishable  from  the  diamond.  See  Jacinth. 


AMIANTHUS. 

THIS  is  a  greenish  or  silvery- white  mineral,  of  fibrous  texture, 
which  is  generally  known  under  the  name  of  Asbestos;  a  term 
derived  from  the  Greek,  and  signifying  'unquenchable,'  'indestruc- 
tible by  fire.' 

This  mineral,  and  particularly  a  silky  variety  of  it,  in  long  slen- 
der filaments,  was  well  known  to  the  ancients,  who  made  it  into  a 
combustible  kind  of  cloth,  in  which  they  burned  the  bodies  of  their 
dead,  and  by  which  means  they  were  enabled  to  collect  and  pre- 
serve the  ashes  without  mixture.  This  cloth  was  purchased  by 
the  Romans  at  an  enormous  expense.  Pliny  states,  that  he  had 
seen  table-cloths,  towels,  and  napkins  of  amianthus  taken  from  the 
table  at  a  great  feast,  thrown  into  the  fire,  and  burned  before  the 
company  ;  and  by  this  operation  rendered  cleaner  than  if  they  had 
been  washed. 

From  its  peculiar  property  of  not  being  destroyed  by  fire,  the 
term  amianthus  is  figuratively  used  for  imperishable,  indestructible. 
In  1  Peter  i.  3,  4,  we  read,  '  Blessed  be  the  God  and  Father  of  our 
Lord  Jesus  Christ,  who,  according  to  his  great  mercy,  hath  begot- 
ten us  again  unto  a  lively  hope,  by  the  resurrection  of  Jesus  Christ 
from  the  dead;  to  an  inheritance  incorruptible  and  undefiled,  and 
that  fadeth  not  away.'  This  blessed  inheritance  is  called  aphtharton, 
incorruptible,  because  it  will  not,  like  the  earthly  Canaan,  be  cor- 
rupted with  the  sins  of  its  inhabitants  (Lev.  xviii.  28),  for  into  the 
heavenly  country  entereth  nothing  that  defileth,  Rev.  xxi.  7.  It  is 
declared  to  be  amianthon,  indestructible,  because  it  shall  neither  be 
destroyed  by  the  waters  of  a  flood,  as  this  earth  has  been,  nor  by 
fire,  as  in  the  end  the  earth  will  be  ;  and  it  is  to  be  amaranton,  un- 
fading, because  its  joys  wili  not  wither,  but.  remain  fresh  through 
all  eternity. 

28 


326  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 


BERYL. 

THE  Beryl  is  now  universally  called  *  topaz'  by  modern  jewellers, 
and,  when  perfect  and  free  from  blemishes,  is  a  very  valuable  gem. 
It  is  very  rare,  however,  in  this  state.  It  is  of  the  number  of  those 
gems  found  only  in  the  round  or  pebble  form.  They  are  ever  of  a 
fine  yellow  color,  but  they  have  this,  like  the  other  gerns,  in  several 
different  degrees.  The  finest  of  all  are  of  a  true  and  perfect  gold 
color ;  but  there  are  some  deeper,  and  others  extremely  pale,  so  as 
to  appear  scarcely  tinged. 

Lamy  suggests  that  the  word  chrysolite  may  have  been  a  general 
name  for  all  precious  stones  which  inclined  to  a  gold  color;  but 
this  does  not  imply  that  it  was  not  given  to  such  particular  ones  as, 
having  no  other  color  mixed  with  it,  shine  like  pure  gold.  That 
this  was  the  true  color  of  the  tarshish  or  chrysolite,  is  evident  from 
Dan.  x.  5,  6,  and  Cant.  v.  14. 


CARBUNCLE. 

THE  Hebrew  word,  which  in  our  Bible  is  translated  carbuncle,  is 
in  the  LXX.,  Josephus,  and  the  Vulgate,  rendered  emerald.  By 
the  ancients  the  emerald  was  a  gem  much  in  request ;  they  denom- 
inated it  smaragdus,  and  are  said  to  have  procured  it  from  Ethiopia 
and  Egypt.  It  is  one  of  the  softest  of  the  precious  stones,  and  is 
almost  exclusively  indebted  for  its  value  to  its  charming  color. 
The  brilliant  purple  of  the  ruby,  the  golden  yellow  of  the  topaz,  the 
celestial  blue  of  the  sapphire,  are  all  pleasing  tints  ;  but  the  green 
of  the  emerald  is  so  lovely,  that  the  eye,  after  glancing  over  all  the 
others,  finds  delight  in  resting  upon  this.  In  the  Apocalypse,  the 
rainbow  is  compared  to  an  emerald  (ch.  iv.  3),  no  doubt  from  its 
color.  See  Emerald. 


CHALCEDONY. 

THIS  stone  is  only  mentioned  in  Rev.  xxi.  19.  Parkhurst  states 
that  Arethas,  who  has  written  an  account  of  Bithynia  says,  this  gem 
had  its  name  from  Chalcedon,  a  eity  of  the  country  opposite  to 
Byzantium,  and  that  it  was  in  color  like  a  carbuncle.  It  is  still 
found  in  considerable  quantities  in  this  part  of  upper  Asia. 


DIAMOND.  327 


CHRYSOPRASUS. 

PLINY  classes  this  gem  among  the  beryls,  the  best  of  "which,  he 
says,  are  those  of  a  sea-green  color  ;  after  these  he  mentions  the 
*  chrysoberyls,'  which  are  a  little  paler,  inclining  to  a  golden  color ; 
and  next,  a  sort  still  paler,  and  by  some  reckoned  a  distinct  species, 
and  called  crysoprasus,  the  color  of  which,  he  elsewhere  observes, 
resembles  the  juice  of  a  leek,  but  somewhat  inclining  to  that  of 
gold.  Hence,  its  name  compounded  ofchrysos,gold,  and^rosos,  a 
leek.  It  is  mentioned  in  Rev.  xxi.  20. 


CRYSTAL, 

THIS  gem  is  called  in  Hebrew  kcrech,  from  its  smoothness,  and 
resemblance  to  ice.  It  may  be  observed,  says  Parkhurst,  that  the 
Greek  name  for  crystal  primarily  signifies  ice,  and  perhaps  the 
LXX.  meant  it  in  the  sense  of  ice  or  frost,  in  Ezek.  i.  22,  where  the 
Hebrew  may  be  rendered  after  Bate,  '  as  the  glittering  of  frost,  daz- 
zling.' So  the  Hebrew  word  is  rendered  'frost,'  and  *  ice 'in  sev- 
eral passages. 


DIAMOND. 

TJBE  diamond,  or  adamant  of  the  ancients,  is  the  most  valuable 
of  gems,  and  the  hardest  of  known  bodies.  When  pure,  it  is  per- 
fectly transparent ;  but  though  for  the  most  part  colorless,  it  is 
sometimes  found  otherwise. 

The  word  in  Exod.  xxviii.  ]8,  and  chap.  xxix.  11,  which  our 
translators  have  rendered  *  diamond,'  isjahlem,  which  the  LXX.  and 
the  Vulgate  understand  to  be  the  jasper,  and  Josephus  the  sap- 
phire. Braunius  argues  it  to  be  the  diamond,  on  the  following 
grounds : — First,  it  is  by  no  means  probable  that  the  diamond, 
which  is  the  most  beautiful  gem,  should  be  omitted  in  the  high 
priest's  pectoral ;  as  it  is,  if  this  word  do  not  denote  it.  And,  sec- 
ondly, that  the  etymology  of  the  word  shows  it  to  be  the  diamond. 
The  word  jahlem  comes  from  a  word  which  signifies  to  break  in 
pieces ;  and  it  is  well  known  that  the  diamond  easily  breaks  all  oth- 
er precious  stones,  though  it  is  itself  easily  broken  to  pieces  with  a 
hammer.  In  reply  to  the  objection  that  the  diamond  was  not 
known  so  early  as  the  days  of  Moses,  this  writer  argues,  that  the 


328  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

engraving  on  the  precious  stones  in  the  high  priest's  breast-plate, 
must  have  been  effected  by  it,  since  no  other  substance  could  be 
found  sufficiently  hard  for  the  purpose.  This,  however,  is  a  mis- 
take, for  it  is  now  known  that  such  engraving  was  commonly,  done 
by  a  hard  stone,  called  *  Smir^  or  *  Smiris.'  John,  in  Rev.  xxi.  19, 
20,  where  he  is  thought  by  several  writers  to  have  an  eye  to  the 
stones  in  the  high  priest's  pectoral,  does  not  mention  the  diamond  ; 
which,  perhaps,  should  have  some  weight.  The  word  translated 
*  diamond,'  in  Jer.  xvii.  1,  is  not  the  same  as  this,  but  shemir. 


EMERALD. 

WE  have  already  given  the  reasons  that  have  been  adduced  for 
supposing  the  carbuncle  of  the  English  bible  to  be  the  emerald. 

This  gem  was  known  among  the  ancients  by  the  name  of  an- 
thrax ;  it  is  of  the  same  degree  of  hardness  with  the  sapphire ;  its 
color  is  a  deep  red,  with  an  admixture  of  scarlet ;  but  when  held 
up  against  the  sun,  it  loses  its  deep  tinge,  and  becomes  of  the  color 
of  burning  charcoal — whence  the  propriety  of  the  name  which  the 
ancients  gave  it. 


JACINTH. 

THIS  precious  gem,  which  is  mentioned  in  Rev.  xxi.  20,  where  it 
is  called  in  the  Greek  text  hyacinth,  as  it  also  is  in  Pliny,  is  now 
thought  to  be  the  amethyst  of  the  moderns.  The  amethysts  of  the 
ancients  are  now  called  garnets, 


JASPER. 

THE  Greek  and  Latin  namejaspis,  as  well  as  the  English  jasper, 
is  plainly  derived  from  the  Hebrew  jaspeh,  says  Park  hurst,  and 
leaves  little  doubt  what  species  of  gem  is  meant  in  Exod.  xxviii.20, 
Ezek.  xxviii.  13,  &c.  The  jasper  is  a  genus  of  scrupi,  of  a  com- 
plex irregular  structure,  of  great  variety  of  colors,  and  emulating  the 
appearance  of  the  finer  marbles,  or  semi-pellucid  gems. 


ONYX  AND  SARDONYX.  329 


MARBLE. 

LXX.,  Vulgate,  and  Aquila  and  Theodotion,  understand  by 
the  Hebrew  shesh,  parian-stone,  or  marble,  which  is  of  a  fine  white 
color.  Its  name  is  derived  from  the  island  of  Paros,  where  it  is 
procured.  Among  the  materials  which  David  provided  for  build- 
ing the  temple,  was  this  fine  valuable  stone  (1  Chron.  xxix.  2) ;  and 
it  was  also  employed  for  laying  the  pavement  in  the  palace  of  Ahas- 
uerus,  Esther  i.  6. 

The  finest  Grecian  sculpture  that  has  been  preserved  to  the  pres- 
ent time  is  of  Parian  marble. 


ONYX    AND    SARDONYX. 

IF  we  may  judge  from  the  variety  of  renderings  which  have  been 
given  by  the  LXX.  of  the  Hebrew  word  shohem,  they  do  not  ap- 
pear to  have  had  any  certain  idea  of  the  kind  of  stone'which  it  de- 
noted. They  translate  it  variously,  topaz,  emerald,  beryl,  sardo- 
nyx, sapphire,  and  onyx.  The  Vulgate  always  renders  onyx.  Brau- 
nius  takes  it  to  be  the  sardonyx,  which  according  to  Pliny  is  a 
precious  stone  of  a  flesh  color>  inclining  to  white. 

The  onyx,  which  is  a  kind  of  chalcedony,  derives  its  name  from 
the  Greek  language,  and  has  been  given  to  it  on  account  of  its  re- 
semblance in  color  to  the  whitish  band  at  the  base  of  the  human 
nail.  The  distinction  which  appears  to  be  made  between  onyx 
and  sardonyx,  arises  from  the  colors  of  the  former  being  arranged 
either  concentrically,  or  in  a  somewhat  confused  manner,  and  those 
of  the  latter  in  regular  stripes  or  bands.  Of  the  sardonyx,  the  an- 
cients made  those  beautiful  cameos,  many  of  which  still  ornament 
our  cabinets. 

This  kind  of  stone  was  found  with  the  gold  and  bdellium  of  the 
river  Pison  in  the  garden  of  Eden  (Gen.ii.  12),  and  in  Exod.xxviii. 
9,  10,  Moses  is  directed  to  take  two  onyx  stones,  and  engrave  on 
them  the  names  of  the  children  of  Israel.  From  J  Chron.  xxix.  2, 
we  find  that  the  name  of  shohem  or  onyx,  was  given  to  a  kind  of 
marble,  as  it  is  by  no  means  probable  that  David  found  the  gem  so 
named, '  in  abundance,'  for  the  temple. 

28* 


330  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HlSTO&YV 


PEARLS. 

THESE  substances,  which  are  found  in  a  testaceous  fish,  resem- 
bling an  oyster,  though  esteemed  of  the  number  of  gems  by  our 
jewellers,  and  highly  valued,  proceed  only  from  a  distemper  in  the 
creature  that  produces  them,  analagous  to  the  bezoars,  and  other 
stony  concretions  in  several  animals  of  other  kinds. 

Pearls  are  only  once  mentioned  in  our  version  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment (Job  xxviii,  18),  and  the  propriety  of  introducing  them  in  this 
place  has  been  much  and  justly  contested.  The  Hebrew  word  in 
the  text  is  gebish,  which  in  some  passages  is  used  for  hail  (Ezek. 
xiii.  11,  13  ;  xxxviii.  22),  and  when  applied  to  precious  stones  seems 
most  likely  to  denote  the  crystal ;  and  so  it  has  been  understood  by 
the  LXX. 

But  as  pearls  are  so  commonly  spoken  of  in  the  New  Testament, 
it  has  been  thought  strange  that  they  should  not  at  all  appear  in  the 
prophetic  writings.  The  learned  Bochart  has  accordingly  main- 
tained that  there  are  Hebrew  words  in  the  Old  Testament  which 
unquestionably  denote  pearls,  although  unnoticed  by  all  the  trans- 
lators. That  the  word  btdolah  (Gen.  ii.  12)  signifies  the  pearl,  he 
thinks  is  evident,  because  the  country  of  Havilah  abounds  with 
these  substances  more  than  any  other  place  in  the  world  ;  and  be- 
cause the  manna  (Numb,  x'u  7),  is  compared  to  bedolah,  in  conse- 
quence of  its  roundness  and  whiteness.  The  word  dar  in  Esth.  i. 
6,  is  also  thought  to  denote  pearl,  as  it  is  called  in  the  Arabic;  be- 
sides that  the  Hebrew  word  properly  denotes  something  round. 
But  whatever  degree  of  credit  these  conjectures  may  seem  to  de- 
serve, there  is  little  doubt  that  the  word  peninim,  in  Job  xxviii.  18, 
Prov.  viii.  11,  and  several  other  places,  rendered  rubies  in  our  bi- 
ble, does  really  signify  penrls.  Hence,  as  Bochart  has  observed, 
the  words  pinna,  pinninos,  lithos,  pinnikon,  are  retained  in  Greek 
and  Latin,  either  for  the  pearl-oyster,  or  for  the  pearl  itself. 

Aquila  renders  the  word  in  Job,  by  things  to  be  looked  at,  con- 
spicuous, illustrious,  plainly  referring  to  the  meaning  of  the  verb 
peneh ;  and  it  is  shown  by  Bochart,  that  pearls  were  estimated  at  a 
very  high  rate,  not  only  by  the  Jews,  but  by  the  Romans,  and  even 
by  the  Medes,  Persians,  and  Indians. 

In  Matt.  vii.  6,  our  Lord  cautions  his  disciples  not  to  'cast  their 
pearls  before  swine,'  in  conformity  with  a  common  mode  of  speak- 
ing among  the  Rabbins,  who  called  the  precepts  of  wisdom  '  pearls.' 
Thus,  also,  in  Matt.  xiii.  46,  the  gospel  is  compared  to  'a  pearl  of 
great  price.' 


TOPAZ.  331 


RUBY. 

IN  the  preceding  article  we  have  stated  it  to  be  probable  that  the 
Hebrew  word  ^em'ram,  rendered  ruby  in  our  Bible,  denotes  the  pearl, 
rather  than  this  precious  gem. 


SAPPHIRE. 

THIS  beautiful  gem  has  preserved  its  original  name  in  most  Ian-* 
guages,  and  there  is  no  reason  to  doubt  its  identity. 

The  oriental  sapphire  is  a  gem  of  blue  color,  the  shades  of  which1 
vary  from  a  full  and  deep  tint  to  a  nearly  colorless  appearance. 
Hence  the  '  God  of  Israel '  is  represented  as  having  '  a  paved  work 
of  sapphire  stone  '  under  his  feet,  and  '  as  it  were  the  body  of  heav-^ 
en  in  his  clearness,'  Exod.  xxiv.  10.  Ezekiel  also  compares  the 
throne  of  God  to  a  sapphire,  ch.  i,  26. 

Jeremiah  describing  the  former  appearance  of  the  inhabitants  of 
the  holy  city,  says,  '  Her  Nazarites  were  purer  than  snow,  they 
were  whiter  than  milk ;  they  were  more  ruddy  in  body  than  rubies, 
their  polishing  was  of  sapphire'  (Lam.  iv.  7) ;  and  the  bride  says 
of  her  beloved,  that '  his  belly  is  as  bright  ivory  overlaid  with  sap- 
phires,' Cant.  v.  14.  The  reference  in  each  of  these  passages 
seems  to  be  to  the  fine  color  of  the  sapphire,- in  connexion  with  the 
delicate  whiteness  of  the  marble : — the  snowy  whiteness  of  the 
skin  was  heightened  by  the  intersecting  veins,  which  were  of  th& 
color  of  sapphire. 


SARDIUS,   OR  SARDINE, 

THE  Sardius  and  Sardine  of  John  (Rev.  xxi.  20),  is  thought  to 
be  the  same  with  the  adem  of  Moses  (Exod.  xxviii.  17)  and  Ezekiel 
(ch.  xxviii.  13)  but  we  have  no  means  of  ascertaining  this  fact. 


TOPAZ. 

So  the  LXX.,  Josephus,  and  others,  translate  the  ptted  of  the 
Old  Testament,  and  the  topazion  of  John ;  but  it  is  certain  that  the 
topaz  of  the  ancients  was  a  very  different  stone  from  that  so  called 


332  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

by  the  moderns :  theirs  being  of  a  pale  green  color  intermixed  with 
yellow,  whereas,  ours  is  blue,  pink,  or  white.  The  ancient  topaz, 
which  is  said  to  have  derived  its  name  from  an  island  in  the  lied 
Sea,  is  probably  the  same  with  our  chrysolite. 


As  most  of  these  stones  are  only  mentioned  in  the  description  of 
the  high  priest's  breastplate  (Exod.  xxviii.  17,  &c.),  and  in  that  of 
foundation  of  the  church  (Isa.  liv.  11, 12),  and  of  the  heavenly  Je- 
rusalem (Rev.  xxi.  19—21),  it  can  excite  no  surprise  that  we  are 
unable  to  ascertain  the  precise  qualities  which  they  severally  pos- 
sessed. It  has,  indeed,  been  thought  by  some  writers,  that  ths 
apostle  in  describing  the  foundations  of  the  new  Jerusalem  had  an 
eye  to  the  pectoral  of  the  high  priest,  and  that  he  enumerates  the 
stones  in  the  same  order  as  Moses  had  done.  This,  however,  is 
by  no  means  probable,  and  every  attempt  hitherto  made  to  trace 
the  connexion  between  them  has  utterly  failed.  In  opposition  to 
that  excessive  love  of  spiritualizing  every  passage  and  thing  occur- 
ring in  the  Bible,  and  which  finds  in  each  of  these  stones  some  re- 
condite and  important  meaning,  Bishop  Lowth  has  justly  observed, 
that  'they  seem  to  be  general  images  to.  express  beauty,  magnifi- 
cence, purity,  strength,  and  solidity,  agreeably  to  the  idea  of  the 
Eastern  nations ;  and  to  have  never  been  intended  to  be  strictly 
scrutinized,  or  minutely  and  particularly  explained,  as  if  they  had 
each  of  them  some  precise  moral  and  spiritual  meaning. 


CHAPTER  II. 
EARTHS. 


WE  must  again  solicit  the  reader's  indulgence,  for  some  occa- 
sional departures  from  the  method  which  an  adherence  to  a  strict- 
ly scientific  analysis  would  require. — We  are  greatly  averse  from 
multiplying  divisions,  where  no  advantages  are  to  be  obtained  by 
so  doing. 


BRIMSTONE. 

THIS  well-known  preparation  of  sulphur  is  frequently  mention- 
ed in  the  sacred  writings,  as  one  of  the  materials  which  God  has 
appointed  to  carry  into  effect  his  righteous  decrees  of  punishing  in- 
corrigible sinners  ;  and  also  as  a  very  significant  symbol  of  desola- 
tion and  barrenness.  In  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  it  is  called  goph- 
rith,  which  the  LXX.  render  theion,  from  theios,  divine,  for  which 
Parkhurst  adduces  the  following  reasons,  from  Holloway. 

'Sulphur  was  eminently  applied  among  the  idolaters  of  various 
nations  to  their  religious  purifications.  One  method  of  purifying 
persons  among  the  Greeks  was  by  going  round  him  three  times, 
and  sprinkling  him  as  often,  with  a  laurel  bough,  or  with  a  torch  of 
some  resinous  wood,  first  lighted  at  the  altar,  and  then  dipped  in 
the  holy  water,  which  they  consecrated  with  a  mixture  of  salt  and 
sulphur;  for,  as  the  solar  fire  or  a  demon  in  the  sun's  orb,  was 
their  chief  acting  god,  so  they  thought  fire  was  of  sovereign  virtue 
to  purify  and  make  them  holy ;  and  therefore,  to  secure  effectually 
its  said  supposed  virtue,  they  took  care  to  have  it  in  double  and 
triple  respects,  as  in  a  torch  of  some  turpentine  tree,  and  that  set 
on  fire,  with  the  addition  of  sulphur. 

God  made  it  an  instrument  of  his  vengeance  on  the  heathen  and 
other  delinquents,  condemning  them  and  their  land  to  brimstone 
and  fire  forever.  See  Job  xviii.  15 ;  Psalm  xi.  6 ;  Deut.  xxix.  23  ; 
Isa.  xxxiv.  9 ;  and  Jude  ver.  7,  on  the  overthrow  of  Sodom  and 
Gomorrah, 


334  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 


PITCH. 

IN  the  English  Bible  there  are  two  Hebrew  words  which  are 
rendered  *  Pitch  ' — zepheth  (Ex.  ii.  3,  Isaiah  xxxiv.  9),  and  chemer 
(Gen.  vi.  14);  the  latter  of  which  is  again  rendered  slime,  in  Gen. 
xi.  3,  and  xiv.  10.  They  are  both  thought  to  be  used  for  asphaltum 
or  bitumen,  a  brittle  substance  of  a  black  or  brownish  color,  and  of 
a  consistence  somewhat  harder  than  pitch. 

The  ancients  were  well  acquainted  with  this  substance,  which  is 
nothing  more  than  mineral  tar  in  an  indurated  or  hardened  state. 
It  is  found  on  the  surface  of  volcanic  productions  ;  and  it  floats  in 
solid  pieces,  and  in  considerable  abundance,  on  the  Asphaltic  Lake, 
which  has  thence  received  its  name. 

It  is  also  found  near  ancient  Babylon,  and  there  is  reason  to  sup- 
pose that  the  mortar  so  celebrated  among  the  ancients,  and  with 
which  the  walls  of  Babylon  were  cemented  was  nothing  more  than 
a  preparation  of  this  substance,  Gen.  xi.  3.  We  are  informed  by 
Herodotus,  that  a  composition  of  heated  bitumen  mixed  with  the 
tops  of  reeds,  was  used  by  the  ancients  as  a  cement.  This  account 
is  confirmed  by  modern  travellers,  who  assert  that  the  remains  of 
buildings  have  been  discovered,  in  which  bitumen  was  formerly 
thus  employed.  It  was  doubtless  the  pitch  used  by  Noah,  for  clos- 
ing the  interstices  of  the  Ark  (Gen.  xi.  14) ;  and  by  the  mother  of 
MOSPS,  to  render  the  vessel  in  which  she  placed  her  infant  son  on 
the  Nile  (Ex.  ii.  3,)  water-proof.  The  Arabs  still^use  it  for  similar 
purposes. 

Josephus  states  that  bitumen  was  used  among  the  ingredients  for 
embalming  the  dead, 


SALT. 

THIS  well-known  fossil  substance  is  several  times  mentioned  hi 
scripture  ;  and  from  the  uses  to  which  it  was  appropriated  by  the 
Jewish  people,  it  will  require  a  notice  of  some  length.  Its  Hebrew 
name  is  melech,  from  a  verb  which  signifies  to  melt,  and  it  is  well 
known  to  be  a  body  soluble  by  water. 

The  use  of  salt  in  cleansing  and  preserving  bodies  from  putrefac- 
tion, was  the  occasion,  no  doubt,  of  its  being  prescribed  to  accom- 
pany all  the  sacrifices  offered  under  the  Mosaic  law :  '  Every  obla- 
tion of  thy  meat-offering,  shalt  thou  season  with  salt ;  neither  shalt 
thou  suffer  the  salt  of  the  covenant  of  thy  God  to  be  lacking  from 
thy  meat-offering :  with  all  thine  offerings  thou  shalt  offer  salt,'  Lev. 
ii.  13. 

Salt  was  the  opposite  to  leaven,  for  it  preserved  from  putrefac- 


SALT.  335 

lion  and  corruption,  and  signified  the  purity  and  persevering  fideli- 
ty that  were  necessary  in  the  worship  of  God.  Every  thing  was 
well  seasoned  with  it,  to  signify  the  purity  and  perfection  that  should 
be  extended  through  all  parts  of  the  divine  service,  and  through  the 
hearts  and  lives  of  God's  worshippers.  It  was  called  the  salt  of  the 
covenant  of  God  ;  because  as  salt  is  incorruptible,  so  was  the  cove- 
nant made  with  Abraham,  Isaac,  Jacob,  and  the  Patriarchs,  relative 
to  the  redemption  of  the  world  by  the  incarnation  and  death  of  Je- 
sus Christ.  Among  the  heathens,  salt  was  a  common  ingredient  in 
all  their  sacrificial  offerings,  and  as  it  was  considered  essential  to 
the  comfort  and  preservation  of  life,  and  as  an  emblem  of  the  most 
perfect  corporeal  aud  mental  endowments,  so  it  was  supposed  to 
be  one  of  the  most  acceptable  presents  they  could  make  to  their 
gods,  from  whose  sacrifices  it  was  never  absent. 

Parkhurst  particularly  notices  the  phraseology  employed  in  the 
injunction,  Lev.  ii.  13;  'salt  the  purifier  of  (i.  e.  appointed  by)  thy 
Aleim,'  whence  he  infers  that  salt,  added  to  all  the  sacrifices,  was  a 
type  of  the  purity  or  sinlessness  of  Christ,  and  of  that  which  puri- 
fies believers.  But  that  which  purifies  believers  in  faith  in  Christ  and 
his  atonement  (2  Cor.  v.  20,  21),  and  the  consequent  hope  of  seeing 
God  through  him.  Acts  xv.  9;  2  Pet.  i.  4 ;  1  John  iii.  3  ;  1  Cor.  iii. 
21.  Salt  was  therefore  a  type  of  that  purifying  faith  and  hope  which 
is  the  gifr  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  Romans  xv.  13 ;  1  Peter  i.  22  ;  Eph.  ii.  8. 
In  Numb,  xviii.  19,  and  2  Chron.  xiii.  5,  we  read  of  'a  covenant 
of  salt,'  which  most  commentators  have  understood  as  a  reference 
to  the  covenant  which  God  had  made  with  his  people,  which  cov- 
enant had  been  ratified  by  a  purification  offering,  or  sacrifice,  with 
which,  as  we  have  seen,  it  was  essential  that  salt  should  be  offered. 
Mr.  Taylor,  however,  has  suggested  another  idea,  which  deserves 
attention.  He  conceives  that  the  '  covenant  of  salt '  refers  to  an 
engagement  in  which  salt  was  used  as  a  token  of  confirmation ;  and 
he  adduces  the  following  among  other  instances  of  such  a  usage, 
from  Baron  du  Tott. 

'  Moldovanji  Pacha  was  desirous  of  an  acquaintance  with  me,  and 
seeming  to  regret  that  his  business  would  not  permit  him  to  stay 
long,  he  departed,  promising  in  a  short  time  to  return.  I  had  al- 
ready attended  him)  half  way  down  the  stair-case,  when  stopping^ 
and  turning  briskly  to  one  of  my  domestics  who  followed  mer 
*  Bring  me  directly,'  said  he, '  some  bread  and  salt?  I  was  not  less 
surprised  at  this  fancy  than  at  the  haste  which  was  made  to  obey 
him.  What  he  requested  was  brought;  when,  taking  a  little  salt 
between  his  fingers,  and  putting  ii  with  a  mysterious  air  on  a  bit  of 
bread,  he  ate  it  with  a  devout  gravity,  assuring  me,  that  I  might  now 
rely  on  him.  1  soon  procured  an  explanation  of  this  significant  cere- 
mony ;  but  this  same  man,  when  become  Visir,  was  tempted  to  vio- 
late this  oath,  thus  taken  in  my  favor.  Yet  if  this  solemn  contract 
be  not  always  religiously  observed,  it  serves,  at  least,  to  '  moderate 
the  spirit  of  vengeance  so  natural  to  the  Turks.'  The  Baron  adda 
in  a  note :  *  The  Turks  think  it  the  blackest  ingratitude  to  forget 


336  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

the  man  from  whom  we  have  received  food  ;  which  is  signified  by 
the  bread  and  salt  in  this  ceremony.' 

We  ought  to  notice  the  readiness  of  the  Baron's  domestics,  in 
proof  that  they,  knowing  the  usages  of  their  country,  well  under- 
stood what  was  about  to  take  place.  Also,  that  this  covenant  is 
usually  punctually  observed ;  and  where  it  is  not  so,  that  it  has  a 
restraining  influence  on  the  party  who  has  made  it ;  and  his  non- 
observance  of  it  disgraces  him. 

M r.  Hartner  has  well  illustrated  the  phrase,  '  We  were  salted  with 
the  salt  of  the  palace'  (Ezra  iv.  J4),  and  the  reader  will  be  pleased 
with  his  remarks.  *  It  is  sufficient  to  put  an  end  to  all  conjecture, 
to  recite  the  words  of  a  modern  Persian  monarch,  whose  court 
Chard  in  attended  some  time  about  business.  Rising  in  a  wrath 
against  an  officer  who  attempted  to  deceive  him,  he  drew  his  sabre, 
fell  upon  him,  und  hewed  him  in  pieces,  at  the  feet  of  the  Grand 
Visir,  who  was  standing,  and  whose  favor  the  poor  wretch  courted 
by  this  deception.  And  looking  fixedly  on  him,  and  on  the  other 
great  lords  that  stood  on  each  side  of  him,  he  said,  with  a  tone  of 
indignation,  *  I  have  then  such  ungrateful  servants  and  traitors  as 
these  to  eat  my  salt!'  'Look  on  this  sword;  it  shall  cut  oft' all 
these  perfidious  heads.'"  It  is  clear  that  this  expression,  'eating 
this  prince's  salt,'  is  equivalent  to  receiving  a  maintenance  from 
him. 

Parkhurst  says,  1  am  well  informed  that  it  is  a  common  expres- 
sion of  the  natives  in  the  East  Indies,  'I  eat  such  an  one's  salt  ;* 
meaning,  lam  fed  by  him.  Tamerlane,  in  his  institutes,  mention- 
ing one  Shaw  Behaun,  who  had  quitted  his  service,  joined  the  en- 
emy, and  fought  against  him  :  'At  length,'  says  he,  '  my  salt  which 
he,  had  eaten  overwhelmed  him  with  remorse :  he  again  threw  him- 
self on  my  mercy,  and  humbled  himself  before  me.' 

Although  salt  in  small  quantities  may  contribute  to  the  commin- 
uting and  fertilizing  some  kinds  of  stubborn  soil,  yet,  according  to 
the  observation  of  Pliny,  all  places  where  salt  is  found  are  barren, 
and  produce  nothing.' 

The  -effect  of  salt,  where  it  abounds,  on  vegetation,  is  described 
by  burning  (Deut.  xxix.  22).  '  The  whole  land  thereof  is  brimstone 
and  salt  of  burning  (or  bwning  salt) ;  it  is  not  sown,  nor  bears, 
nor  any  herb  grows  therein,  like  the  overthrow  of  Sodom,  &e. 
Volney,  speaking  of  the  borders  of  the  Asphaltie  Lake,  or  Dead 
Sea,  says,  '  The  true  cause  of  the  absence  of  vegetables  and  animals, 
is  the  acrid  saltness  of  its  waters,  which  is  infinitely  greater  than 
that  of  the  sea.  The  land  surrounding  the  lake,  being  equally 
.impregnated  with  that  saltness,  refuses  to  produce  plants  ;  the  air 
itself,  which  is  by  evaporation  loaded  with  it,  and  which  moreover, 
receives  vapors  of  sulphur  and  bitumen,  cannot  suit  vegetation  ; 
whence  that  dead  appearance  which  reigns  around  the  lake.  So  a 
« salt  land  '  (Jer.  xvii.  6,)  is  the  same  as  '  the  parched  places  in  the 
wilderness,'  and  is  descriptive  of  barrenness ;  as  '  saltness  '  also  is, 
Job  xxxix.  6;  Psalm  cvii.  34;  Cornp.  Ezek.  xlvii.  11  j  £eplu 
ii.  9. 


SALT.  337 

Hence,  the  ancient  custom  of  sowing  an  enemy's  city,  when 
taken,  with  salt  in  token  of  perpetual  desolation  (Judg.  ix.  45); 
and  thus  in  after  times,  the  city  of  Milan  was  burnt,  rased,  sown 
with  salt,  and  plowed  by  the  exasperated  emperor  Frederic  Bar- 
barossa. 

From  the  mention  not  only  of  sulphur  or  brimstone,  but  of  salt, 
in  Deut.  xxix.  23,  (comp.  Gen.  xiv.  3,)  we  may  collect  that  the 
latter,  as  well  as  the  former,  was  employed  by  Jehovah  in  the  de- 
struction of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah,  and  may  thence  explain  what 
is  said  of  Lot's  wife  (Gen*  xix.  26) :  '  and  she  became  a  pillar  of 
salt;'  namely,  while  she  was  looking  with  a  wishful  eye  towards 
Sodom,  she  was  overtaken  by  the  miraculous  solo-sulphureous 
shower,  and  thereby  fixed  and  incrusted  like  a  statue. 

In  Syria,  where  there  are  salt  lakes,  it  is  probable  that  compari- 
sons, and  even  proverbs  were  taken  from  the  properties  of  the 
article  they  furnished.  So  we  read, '  salt,'  that  is,  in  its  genuine 
state,  'is  good,  but  if  it  have  lost  its  saltness,  wherewith  will  ye 
season  it  ? ' — How  restore  to  it  any  relish  ?  The  surface  of  the  salt 
lakes,  and  also  the  thinner  crust  of  salts,  next  the  edges  of  the  lakes 
after  rains,  and  specially  after  long  continued  rains,  loses  the  saline 
particles,  which  are  washed  away  and  drained  off,  yet  it  retains 
the  form  and  appearance  of  salt,  like  the  most  perfect.  For  this 
reason,  those  who  go  to  gather  salt  from  the  lakes,  drive  their 
horses  and  carts  over  this  worthless  matter,  and  consequently 
trample  it  into  mere  mud  and  dirt,  in  order  to  get  some  distance 
into  the  lake,  where  the  salt  is  better:  and  often  they  are  obliged 
to  dig  away  the  surface  from  thence,  to  obtain  the  salt,  pure  and 
pungent. 

From  Ezek.  xvi»  4,  we  learn  that  it  was  the  custoni  to  salt  the 
bodies  of  new  born  infants ;  which  Jerom  conceived  to  have  been 
intended  to  dry  up  the  humidity  and  to  close  the  pores  of  the  skin. 
It  is  said  that  the  Tartars  and  the  Greeks  still  continue  the  prac- 
tice. 


Salt  is  the  symbol  of  wisdom  (Col.  iv.  6),  and  of  perpetuity  and 
incorruption  (Numb,  xviii.  19 ;  2  Chr.  xiii.  5),  as  well  as  of  barren- 
ness and  sterility. 

The  only  passage  which  remains  to  be  noticed  is  Mark  ix.  49, — 
'For  everyone  shall  be  salted  with  fire,  and  every  sacrifice  shall 
be  salted  with  salt,' — an  exceedingly  obscure  passage,  which  has 
exercised  the  ingenuity  of  many  learned  men.  Jt  would  be  useless 
to  bring  before  the  reader  the  various  conjectures  and  readings 
which  have  been  proposed  of  the  text :  they  may  be  seen  in  Pole, 
Wolfius,  and  Koecher;  or  the  most  likely  ones  may  be  seen  in. 
Bloomfield,  who  closes  an  elaborate  note  by  stating  that  he  cannot 
accede  to  any  interpretation  he  has  yet  seen :  all  being  liable  to  ob- 
jections. 

Without  affirming  that  the  following  interpretation  is  free  from 
what  appears  to  attach  itself  to  all  others,  it  is  submitted  as  afford- 
ing a  good  sense  of  the  passage. 


338  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

« For  every  one  shall  be  salted  with  fire,  and  every  sacrifice  shall 
be  salted  with  salt.' — This  sentence  connects  with  the  foregoing ; 
as  the  particles/or,  which  is  casual,  shows.  In  the  preceding  verse 
we  read,  that  offenders  shall  be  cast  into  the  Gehenna  of  fire; 
where  the  fire  shall  perpetually  burn  them,  and  the  consciousness, 
of  their  crimes  shall  perpetually  torment  them.  For  every  one — 
that  is,  every  one  who  is  cast  into  the  Gehenna  of  fire — shall  be 
seasoned,  shall  be  preserved  in  this  fire.  This  fire  shall  act  upon 
the  wicked,  who  are  thrown  into  it,  as  brine  acts  upon  the  meat, 
oter  which  it  is  poured.  It  shall  consolidate,  not  consume  them. 
Unlike  all  other  fires,  it  shall  not  destroy  life,  but  prolong  it.  Such 
is  the  state  of  every  incorrigible  offender.  It  remains  to  be  shown, 
what  is  the  portion  reserved  for  the  faithful.  Every  faithful  disci- 
ple, who  is  so  truly  devoted  to  the  Christian  cause  as  to  be  ready 
to  die  in  its  defence,  is  here  represented  under  the  figure  of  a  sac- 
rifice, seasoned  with  salt.  Every  sacrifice,  says  Christ,  thus  prepar- 
ed for,  and  devoted  to  me,  shall  be  considered  as  seasoned  with 
salt.  The  Jews  were  taught  to  understand  that  sacrifices,  so 
seasoned,  were  acceptable  to  the  Lord.  Every  sincere  disciple  is 
here,  by  anticipation  and  prolepsis,  denominated  a  sacrifice.  By 
this  appellation  he  was  forwarned  of  an  event,  which  the  sword  of 
persecution  would  not  fail  to  accomplish.  With  a  like  view  to 
gacrifices  Paul  thus  rites  to  the  Philippians:  If  I  be  poured  out; 
and  to  Timothy :  For  I  am  now  ready  to  be  poured  out. 

Thus  the  punishment  hereafter  to  be  inflicted  on  the  wicked,  and 
the  recompense  reserved  for  the  faithful,  are  expressed  in  terms 
fetched  from  those  sacrificial  rites  with  which  the  Jews  were  con- 
versant. Commentators  conceiving  the  sense  to  be,  consumed  by 
fire,  have  proposed  to  read — instead  of  shall  be  salted — shall  be  de- 
stroyed. But  the  very  reverse  of  consumed  is  the  sense  intended. 
A  learned  critic  has  indeed  said,  that  '  as  to  salting  with  fire,  no- 
thing can  be  made  of  it.'  But  much,  and  much  more  to  the  pur- 
]K>se  may  be  made  of  it  than  can  be  made  of  any  word  which  criti- 
cism, in  its  ardor  to  amend,  may  have  undertaken  to  substitute. 


SOAP. 

THE  LXX.  render  berith,  in  Jer.  ii.  22,  the  herb ;  Jcrom  and  th« 
Vulgate,  the  herb  borith.  In  Mai.  iii.  2,  the  LXX.  translate  berith 
mtkbesim,  by  the  herb  of  the  washers,  and  the  Vulgate,  the  herb  of 
fullers.  '  With  respect  to  the  herb  borith,'  says  Goguet,  '  I  imagine 
it  is  sal-worth  (salt-wort).  This  plant  is  very  common  in  Judea, 
Syria,  and  Arabia.  They  burn  it,  and  pour  water  upon  the  ashes. 
The  water  becomes  impregnated  with  a  very  strong  lixivial  salt, 
proper  for  taking  stains  or  impurities  out  of  wool  or  cloth.'  Micha- 


VERMILION.  330 

e'lis,  however,  thinks  that  berith  means,  not  the  herb  or  plant  Kali, 
but  the  alkaline  or  lixivial  salt  procured  from  the  ashes  of  that  and 
other  plants ;  though  he  confesses  that  in  Jer.  ii.  22,  it  may  also  fcc 
rendered  soap,  made  ofsnch  salt.  But  he  understands  Mai.  ii.  2,  of 
the  alkaline  salt  itself,  such  as  fullers  indeed  use,  but  which  in  this 
passage  he  apprehends  is  mentioned  only  in  respect  to  its  use  in 
liquifying  and  purifying  metals  (ver.  3),  by  causing  their  impurities 
to  vitrify,  and  melt  down  into  scoria?,  thus  leaving  the  metal  pure. 
In  like  manner  he  interprets  6er,  in  Isa,  i.  25, '  I  will  melt  down,  « 
(with)  alkaline  salt,  thy  dross,  and  I  will  remove  all  thy  base  metal,' 


NITRE. 

IN  conjunction  with  the  soap  or  alkali  of  the  preceding  article, 
the  prophet  Jeremiah  (ch.  ii.  22)  mentions  nitre  :  '  Though  thou 
wash  thee  with  nitre,  and  take  thee  much  soap,  yet  thine  iniquity  is 
marked  before  me,  saith  the  Lord  God.' 

This  substance,  nitre,  differs  very  little  from  the  berith  we  have 
just  noticed,  being  a  pure  and  native  salt,  extremely  different  from 
our  nitre,  and  indeed,  from  all  the  other  native  salts.     It  is  a  fixed 
alkali,  plainly  of  the  nature  of  those  made  by  fire  from  vegetables* 
Natrum,  whether  native  or  purified,  dissolves  in  a  very  small  quan 
tity  of  water;  and  this  solution  is  in  many  parts  of  Asia  used  fo 
washing,  where  it  is  also  made  into  soap,  by  mixing  it  with  oil ' 
The  natives  sweep  it  from  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  call  if 
goap-earth.     The  earliest  account  we  have  of  it  is  in  the  Scriptures 
where  we  find  that  the  salt  called  nitre,  in  those  times,  would  fer 
ment  with  vinegar,  and  had  an  abstersive  quality,  so  that  it  was  use. 
in  baths,  and  in  washing  things. 

Solomon  compares  the  singing  of  songs  to  a  heavy  heart  to  the 
contrariety  of  vinegar  and  nitre,  which  nitre,  with  that  mentioned 
in  the  passage  already  cited,  exhibits  properties  that  perfectly  agree 
with  this  salt,  but  not  at  all  with  our  nitre  or  saltpetre. 

The  ancient  Egyptians  are  said  to  have  made  great  use  of  this 
nitre  for  the  preservation  of  their  dead,  by  macerating  them  in  it  for 
several  months  previously  to  their  being  embalmed. 


VERMILION, 

THIS  beautiful  color  is  only  spoken  of  in  two  passages  of  scrip- 
ture ;  in  one  of  which  it  is  referred  to  as  being  used  in  decorating 
the  interior  of  splendid  buildings  (Jer.  xxii.  14);  and  in  the  other 


840  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

as  appropriated  to  the  purpose  of  drawing  or  painting.    Ezek.  xxiii, 
14. 

The  vermilion  in  present  use  is  well  known  as  a  preparation  of 
mercury  and  sulphur;  but  Pliny  informs  us,  that  that  which  was 
called  by  the  Greeks  milton,  was  found  in  silver  mines,  in  the  form 
«f  reddish  sand,  and  was  much  used  by  the  Romans  in  his  time  as 
a  paint,  and  formerly  applied  to  sacred  purposes.  Coin  p.  Ezek, 
xxiii.  14.  Bochart  observes,  that  there  is  a  lake  in  Africa,  called 
from  the  Pho3nicians  Sisari,  so  named,  he  thinks,  on  account  of  the 
vermilion,  or  red  paint  ( called  by  the  Hebrews  st&er)  for  which 
those  parts  were  famous;  and  also  of  the  neighboring  river,  called 
likewise,  in  Latin,  Rubicatus, — red -colored. 


CLAY. 

THIS  well  know  and  useful  substance  is  spoken  of  in  several 
passages  of  scripture,  from  which  it  is  evident  that  it  has  been  ap- 
propriated to  the  manufacture  of  various  useful  and  ornamental 
articles  from  a  very  early  period  of  the  world. 

There  is  only  one  passage  among  these,  however,  that  requires 
elucidation,  and  as  it  has  occasioned  much  embarrassment  to  bibli- 
cal critics,  the  reader  will  not  be  displeased  at  the  length  of  the  fol- 
lowing article,  from  the  pen  of  the  ingenious  Landseer,  which  clears 
up  the  sense  of  the  sacred  writer,  and  renders  manifest  the  pro- 
fundity and  accuracy  of  his  knowledge.  The  passage  elucidated 
is  as  follows:  'Hast  thou  commanded  the  morning  since  thy  days; 
and  caused  the  day-spring  to  know  his  place,  that  it  might  take  hold 
of  the  ends  of  the  earth,  that  the  wicked  might  be  shaken  out  of  it  ? 
It  is  turned  as  clay  to  the  seals  ;  and  they  stand  as  a  garment.  And 
from  the  wicked  their  light  is  withholden,  and  the  high  arm  shall 
be  broken,'  Job  xxxviii.  12 — 14. 

Dr.  John  Mason  Good,  who  has  favored  the  public  with  a  new 
and  luminous  arrangement  and  translation  of  this  extraordinary 
book,  affirms,  that  there  is  hardly  any  passage  in  the  whole  poem 
that  has  been  supposed  so  difficult  of  elucidation  as  that  above  cited; 
'nor,'  continues  he,  'have  I  met  with  a  single  rendering  that  is  per- 
spicuous, or  will  bear  a  critical  examination.  Schultens  says,  he 
has  compared  and  examined  with  great  attention  the  different  at- 
tempts of  interpreters  to  explain  the  fourteenth  verse,  but  confesses, 
that  from  none  of  them  has  he  been  able  to  extract  its  meaning ;  and 
even  Reiske,  the  boldest  critical  expositor  we  are  possessed  of,  fin- 
ishes with  exclaiming,  '  Fateor  me  non  capere.' 

Now,  Schulten  and  Reiske  have  failed  of  their  object,  not  (as  nu>y 
well  be  supposed)  from  lack  of  scholarship  or  of  judgment,  but  for 


CLAY.  341 

want  of  the  local  antiquarian  knowledge  which  the  ancient  cylinders, 
recently  dug  up  at  Babylon,  supply  ;  and  Dr.  Good  himself,  in  this 
instance  (however  admirably  he  has,  in  other  respects,  treated  his 
subject),  is,  from  the  same  cause,  not  a  whit  more  successful  than 
his  predecessors.  His  version  of  the  passage  in  question  is— 

Within  thy  days  hast  them  ordained  the  dawn, 

And  appointed  to  the  day-spring  his  post, 

That  they  should  lay  gold  on  the  skirts  of  the  earth, 

And  evil-doers  be  terrified  away  from  it? 

Canst  thou  cause  them  to  bend  round  as  clay  to  the  mould  ? 

So  that  they  are  made  to  set  like^a  garment? 

As  the  sense  of  these  verses  is  obscure, — as  it  differs  from  the 
rendering  of  every  other  Hebrew  scholar  that  I  have  consulted,  and 
does  not  appear  consistent  with  common  sense  or  itself,  even  with 
the  help  of  two  pages  of  notes, — I  shall  venture  to  argue,  that  it 
cannot  be  the  true  meaning  of  the  original.  We  may  safely  believe 
that  evil-doers  were  not,  in  the  days  of  Job,  any  more  than  at  pre- 
sent, terrified  away  from  skirts,  or  other  places,  where  gold  was 
laid.  Neither  does  the  substitution  of  mould  for  seed  at  all  clear  the 
sense,  but  the  contrary  ;  for  Dr.  Good,  remarking  on  this  verse,  says, 
*  Canst  thou  cause  them  to  bend  round  as  clay  to  the  mould  ? '  would 
be  rather  more  literally  rendered  if  the  to  were  omitted,  and  if  it 
were  written,  'Canst  thou  cause  them  to  bend  round  as  clay  the 
mould  ?  '  But  here  again,  in  his  aversion  to  the  idea  of  a  seal,  he 
says  this  really  means,  not  as  clay  causes  the  mould  to  bend  round, 
but  'as  the  mould  doth  clay.' 

I  shall  now  request  attention  whilst  I,  fact  by  fact,  and  inference 
by  inference,  pursue  the  meaning  of  these  verses,  in  the  manner 
that  appears  to  me  the  most  simple  and  perspicuous ;  at  the  same 
time  not  disregarding  that  impressive  opening  of  the  chapter  con- 
taining them,  which,  to  the  end  of  time,  should  sound  awfully  in 
the  ears  of  biblical  critics. 

The  chapter  begins,  'Then  the  Lord  answered  Job  out  of  the 
whirlwind,  and  said,  *  Who  is  this  that  darkeneth  counsel  by  words 
without  knowledge  ? '  and  after  those  grand  interrogations  which 
have  been  so  frequently  admired,  respecting  the  formation  of  the 
earth,  clouds,  and  sea,  he  proceeds :  '  Hast  thou  commanded  the 
morning  since  thy  days?  Hast  thou  caused  the  day-spring  to 
know  his  place  that  it  might  take  hold  of  the  ends  of  the  earth,  that 
the  wicked  might  be  shaken  out  of  it?  ' — 

Some  slight  degree  of  confusion  between  the  light  of  morning, 
and  that  religious  light,  or  day-spring  of  truth  and  justice,  to  which 
it  is  likened,  must  here  be  confessed  to  exist  (at  least  in  the  Eng- 
lish translation);  and  for  the  transition  from  literal  light,  to  light 
personified  and  invested  with  knowledge  and.  power,  the  idiom  of 
the  Hebrew  language,  or  the  elevated  ardor  of  the  poet's  imagina- 
tion, must  be  accountable.  If  it  is  not  critical,  it  is  grand ;  and 
scarcely  does  the  want  of  grammatical  construction  throw  even  a 
faint  shade  over  the  general  meaning  of  the  sentence  ;  nor  does  it 


342  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

affect  at  all  the  metaphor  of  the  seal  that  follows,  and  which  it  is* 
ray  purpose  to  explain.  The  day-spring  to  be  understood  in  the 
second  interrogation,  is  poetically  adverted  to  by  St.  Luke  (ch.  i. 
rer.  7,  8),  on  the  occasion  of  Zechariah's  prophecy  respecting  the 
appearance  of  St.  John  the  Baptist,  the  aurora  of  the  Sun  of  Right- 
eousness ;  where  he  says,  « The  day-spring  from  on  high  hath  vis- 
ited us,  to  give  light  to  them  that  sit  in  darkness.'  In  Job,  howev- 
er, the  personified  day-spring  is  made  to  « take  hold  of  the  ends  of 
the  earth,  that  the  wicked  might  be  shaken  out  of  it;'  that  is  to 
say,  their  wickedness  being  brought  to  light,  the  punishment  which 
legal  justice  inflicts,  shall  follow  the  exposure.  This  meaning  re- 
sults even  to  the  Bible  readers  of  the  present  day  ;  but  what  more 
terrible  sentiment  raust  have  been  felt  by  those  disputants  who,, 
throughout  the  poem,  had  been  darkening  eouusel  by  words  with- 
out knowledge,  it  might  be  thought  foreign  to  our  -antiquarian  pur- 
pose to  attempt  to  explain. 

Th,e  next  verse  proceeds,  4It  is  turned  as  clay  to  the  seal,  and 
they  stand  as  a  garment,'  or,  as  tl>e  latter  member  of  the  sentence 
is  rendered  by  Junius  and  Tremellius,  '  they  present  themselves- 
like  her  coverings.' 

It  seems  here  proper  to  note,  that,  as  the  text  implies — the  seal- 
ing substance  of  the  land  of  Uz,  and  probably  that  of  the  nation* 
on  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates,  at  this  remote  period  was  clay— the 
ooze  of  that  river :  the  very  same  substance,  levigated,  perhaps,  of 
which  the  stamped  Babylonian  bricks  are  formed  ;  and  the  better 
sort  of  that  pottery  whose  fragments  abundantly  bestrew  the  sites 
of  Babylon  and  Susa,  even  at  present — the  potter's  clay  of  the  an- 
cient prophets,  and  what  is  still  used  for  the  purpose  of  sealing  in 
some  parts  of  the  East.  It  may  also  be  worthy  of  remark,  that  of 
the  various  substances  (such  as  waxes,  pastes,  we.)  on  which  I  have 
tried  to.  impress  these  aneient  signets,  I  have  found  clay  the  fittest 
for  the  purpose,  both  of  receiving  and  retaining  the  impression  ;  and1 
though  a  Copernican  objector  might  argue  here,  that  it  is  not  the 
light  of  the  morning  which  is  turned,  but  the  earth  toward  the 
light,  yet  this  would  be  casuistry  :  the  poet  who  wrote  this  wonder- 
ful book,  probably  believed  otherwise  ;  or,  if  thi-?  point  he  still  re- 
garded as  of  any  importance,  it  may  be  answered,  So  does  the  sig- 
net which  is  compared  to  the  earth,  in  fact,  turn  (.on  its  axis,  during 
the  operation  of  impressing  it)  toward  the  clay  ;  and  if  it  be  true,  as 
Volney  has  asserted,  that  some  of  tire  oriental  nations  of  antiquity 
believed  the  earth  to  be  of  a  cylindrical  form,  and  have  so  represent- 
ed it  among  their  hieroglyphics,  the  metaphor  would  be  still  more 
complete ;  and  the  words  contained  in  our  English  translation  of 
the  preceding  verse,  'that  it  might  take  hold  of  the  ends  of  the 
3arth,'  be  expressly  correct,  whether  we  regard  the  word  it  as  refer- 
ring to  the  light  of  morning,  or  as  denoting  that  searching  ray  of 
Providence  which  brings  moral  turpitude  to  view.  The  latter, 
however,  is  the  meaning  to  which  the  text  before  us  has  more  es- 
pecial reference.  *  It  is  turned  as  clay  to  the  seal,  and  they  stand  or 


CLAY.  343 

present  themselves  as  a  garment/  means,  that  the  wicked  spoken 
of  in  the  preceding  verse,  stand  confessed,  or  exposed  to  view,  like 
the  embroidery  of  a  garment  at  the  approach  of  light. — Or,  rather, 
I  think,  when  thisv  verse  is  regarded  together  with  the  preceding, 
the  analogy  is,  that  the  wicked,  and  the  dark  contents  of  the  en- 
graving, are  both  cast  off,  as  a  garment  is  cast  off, — a  thing  that  has 
fitted  and  adhered. 

It  is  the  blending  of  the  literal  and  the  figurative  meanings  to- 
gether (which  is  done  in  all  the  translations  that  I  have  had  an  op- 
portunity of  consulting),  that  has  somewhat  perplexed  the  passage, 
and  conspired  with  their  ignorance  of  cylindrical  signets,  and  their 
non-advertence  to  the  science  of  astronomy,  to  perplex  also  those 
commentators  who  have  busied  themselves  in  its  explication.  They 
have  fancied  that  the  seals  of  the  land  of  Uz  could  be  of  no  other 
form  than  that  of  the  seals  which  are  in  modern  use.  But  now 
that  these  revolving  seals  are  produced,*  I  should  expect  that  the 
clouds  of  learned  conjecture  which  have  obscured  the  subject  would 
be  dispelled,  and  the  meaning  of  this  mysterious  passage  shine  forth 
like  the  morning  light,  in  the  superb  metaphor  before  us ;  for,  from 
the  whole  passage,  when  viewed  with  the  signets,  results  an  inter- 
esting and  beautiful  similitude  between  three  dissimilar  things  ;  that 
is  to  say,  between  the  light  of  morning  beaming  on,  and  passing 
round,  a  darkened  world,  and  disclosing  its  contents  ;  and  that  in- 
tellectual light,  emanating  from  the  Deity,  which  exposes,  in  their 
true  forms,  the  dark  deeds  and  moral  deformities  of  the  wicked  ;f 
and  the  operation  of  impressing  one  of  these  ancient  cylindrical 
signets  on  cl.iy,  which  bends  as  the  cylinder  revolves  in  delivering 
its  impression,  stands  around  it  curved ly  as  a  garment  (till  you  flat- 
ten it  while  in  a  moist  state),  and  renders  conspicuous  to  view  the 
dark  contents  of  the  intaglio  engraving. 

That  there  should  exist  a  similar  reference  to  a  signet,  perhaps  to 
a  signet  of  a  similar  kind,  in  another  of  the  most  ancient  of  poems; 
that  the  Grecian  lyre  of  Orpheus  should  respond  to  the  Hebrew 
harp  of  the  poet  of  Job — is  another  curious  fact,  which  might  serve 
to  confirm  (if  such  confirmation  were  needed)  the  justness  of  the 
poetical  analogy  before  us. 

*  These  interesting  relics  of  antiquity  are  of  various  dimensions.  Speaking  generally, 
they  are  from  three-fourths  of  an  inch  in  length:  and  from  something  less  than  an  inch 
to  three  inches  in  circumference.  Their  form,  as  above  stated,  is  cylindrical.  Some  of 
them  are  regular  cylinders :  due  allowance  being  made  for  the  wear  and  tear  they  have 
undergone :  but  others  are  not  exactly  cylinders,  having  a  small  degree  of  concavity  or 
hollowness  in  their  sides,  like  a  dice  box  :  and  all  of  them  are  perforated  longitudinally. 
On  each  of  these  cylinders  are  engraved  a  variety  of  elaborate  devices,  in  inlaglio.  'In- 
troduce a  metal  axis,'  says  Mr.  Landseer,  who  has  given  a  series  of  beautifully1  executed 
engravings  of  these  precious  gems, '  and  mount  one  of  these  engraved  gems  upon  the  prin- 
ciple of  a  garden  rolling-stone,  it  becomes  at  once  a  seal,  easy  to  use,  and  copious  in  iti 
contents.' 

t  The  words  which  in  Job  immediately  follow  these,  are  perfectly  homogeneous  with 
the  explanation  which  I  here  venture  to  submit.  'For,  from  the  wicked  their  light  if 
withheld,'  clearly  means,  that  Providence  discloses  the  evil  deeds  of  the  wicked,  by  mean* 
of  which  their  infatuation  renders  them  blind  to  the  approach.  The  remainder  of  tb» 
l*th  verse  is  easily  understood,  and  has  no  reference  to  these  cylinder!. 


344  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

But,  in  justice  to  the  author  of  the  Hebrew  or  Arabian  poem— 
•whichsoever  it  originally  was — I  should  not  quit  this  text,  without 
noticing  also,  the  depth  of  astronomical  knowledge  which  is  con- 
tained in  it.  '  Hast  thou  commanded  the  morning  since  thy  days  ? 
Hast  thou  caused  the  day-spring  to  know  his  place,  that  it  might  take 
hold  on  the  ends  of  the  earth?' — when  combined  with  that  other 
sublime  assertion  of  the  power  of  Jehovah, '  His  hand  incurvated 
the  flying  serpent,'  shows  that  the  poet,  and  those  of  his  readers 
whom  he  immediately  addressed,  were  informed  of  the  spiral  path; 
— that  is  to  say,  apparent  annual  path — of  the  sun  through  the  hea- 
vens. The  supposition  that  tha  author  and  his  readers  or  hearers 
were  thus  informed,  gives  emphatic  and  forcible  meaning  to  the 
question, '  Hast  thou  caused  the  day-spring  to  know  his  place  ? '  be- 
cause that  place  varies  from  day  to  day.  In  the  vernal  season,  and 
at  the  remote  sera  of  the  patriarch,  the  day  sprung  from  the  stars 
of  Taurus  ;  but  in  the  summer  seasons  from  those  of  Leo. 

The  justness  and  profundity  of  observation  that  is  implied  in  the 
text : '  By  his  spirit  hath  he  garnished  the  heavens  ;  His  hand  incur- 
vated the  flying  serpent;'  and  the  creative  and  presiding  power  of 
Jehovah,  that  is  asserted  and  displayed  in  it,  are  not  fully  manifes- 
ted, as  the  passage  has  commonly  been  explained. — Not  that  more 
is  meant  than  meets  the  ear,  but  that  what  meets  the  ear  cannot  al- 
so meet  the  mind,  unless  it  be  astronomically  regarded  :  and  the 
generality  of  annotators  have,  on  the  contrary,  supposed  the  words 
flying,  or  '  crooked  serpent,'  (as  it  is  rendered  in  the  common  Eng- 
lish Bible),  to  allude  literally  to  the  incurvations  of  the  serpent  of 
earth. 


CHAPTER  III. 
METALS. 

GOLD. 

THIS  is  the  heaviest,  purest,  most  ductile,  and  on  these  accounts, 
the  most  valuable  of  all  metals.  It  is  the  most  frequently  found 
native ;  and  is,  indeed,  very  rarely  found  in  fa  state  of  ore ;  that 
is,  divested  of  its  metallic  form,  by  its  particles  being  inti- 
mately mixed  with  sulphur;  and  in  the  few  instances  in  which 
it  is  found  thus,  it  never  constitutes  a  peculiar  ore,  but  is  found 
intermixed  among  cres  of  other  metals;  and  most  frequently 
among  those  of  silver,  or  those  in  which,  though  of  some  other 
metal,  there  yet  is  a  large,  quantity  of  silver,  in  which  the  "gold 
liesin  its  state  of  ore.  It  is  sometimes  found  in  masses  of  con- 
siderable size ;  many  of  more  than  a  pound  weight ;  these  are 
met  with  in  gold  mines,  and  are  called  aurum  Obrizum,  Qbrhium, 
but  they  are  very  rare  ;  such,  however,  have  been  sometimes  ob- 
tained from  the  German  mines.  Its  common  appearance,  in  its 
more  loose  state,  is  in  form  of  what  is  called  gold  dust :  this  is  na- 
tive gold  in  smaller  particles,  usually,  indeed,  very  small,  mixed 
among  the  sand  of  rivers.  This  is  found  in  many  parts  of  the 
world,  but  the  greatest  quantity  is  from  the  coast  of  Guinea.  By 
all  the  trials  that  have  been  made,  gold  seems  to  be  the  most  simple 
of  all  substances.  It  is  wholly  incapable  of  rust,  arid  is  not  sono- 
rous when  struck.  It  requires  a  strong  fire  to  melt  it;  is  unaltered 
in  that  degree  of  heat  which  fuses  tin  or  lead  ;  but  runs  with  a  less 
vehement  fire  than  is  necessary  to  fuse  iron  or  copper. 

Gold  is  mentioned  throughout  the  scripture,  and  the  use  of  that 
metal,  among  the  ancient  Hebrews,  in  its  native  and  mixed  state, 
and  for  the  same  purposes  as  at  present  used,  was  common.  The 
ark  of  the  covenant  was  overlaid  with  pure  gold  ;  and  the  mercy- 
seat,  and  the  vessels  and  utensils  belonging  to  the  tabernacle  were 
of  gold,  as  were  those  also  of  the  house  of  the  Lord,  and  the  drink- 
ing vessels  of  king  Solomon.  They  made  chains,  bracelets,  and 
other  ornaments  of  gold,  coins  and  medals,  crowns,  &c.  The 
mines  whence  David  and  Solomon  procured  the  greatest  part  of 
their  gold,  were  those  of  Ophir. 

Might  not  the  sixtieth  Psalm,  and  the  five  others  that  are  distin- 
guished by  the  epithet,  be  called  'golden,'  on  account  of  their  hav- 
ing been,  on  some  occasion,  written  in  letters  of  gold,  and  hung  up 
in  the  sanctuary,  or  elsewhere  ?  Not,  it  may  be,  on  account  of  their 


346  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

being  judged  to  have  a  superior  excellence  to  the  other  hymns  of 
this  collection,  absolutely  speaking,  hut  their  being  suited  to  some 
particular  circumstances,  which  might  occasion  them  to  be  treated 
with  this  distinction.  See  Isaiah  xxxvii.  14. 

The  works  of  seven  of  the  most  excellent  Arab  poets,  who  flour- 
ished before  the  times  of  Mahomrnedanism,  were  called  '  Al  Moal- 
lacat,' because  they  were  successively  fixed,  by  way  of  honor,  to 
the  gate  of  the  temple  of  Mecca  ;  and  also,  «  Al  Modhahebat,'  which 
signifies  gilded  or  golden,  because  they  were  written  in  letters  of 
gold,  upon  Egyptian  paper.  The  same  writer,  in  a  succeeding 
page,  states  that  the  Arahs,  when  they  would  praise  any  one's 
poems,  were  wont  to  say,  These  are  the  golden  verses  of  such  or 
such-an-one,  which  he  seems  to  suppose  was  derived  from  th$ 
writing  of  these  poeins  in  tetters  of  gold. 


SILVER. 


THIS  metal,  which  is  equally  well  known  with  that  of  the  for- 
mer article,  ranks  next  to  it  in  value.  Like  that  it  has  been,  from 
a  very  early  period,  coined  into  money,  or  at  least  stamped,  for  the 
purposes  of  exchange,  and  also  manufactured  into  various  kinds  of 
utensils.  See  Numbers  vii.  13,  84  ;  ch.  x.  2  ;  1  Chronicles  xxviii. 
15, 17,  &c. 


AMBER. 

IT  is  evident  from  the  manner  in  which  the  prophet  Ezekiel 
speaks  of  (chesmel,)  amber  (ch.  i.  4,  27  ;  and  viii.  2),  that  he  did  not 
intend  the  bituminous  substance  now  so  well  known  under  this 
name.  The  LXX.  render  the  Hebrew  word  electron,  which  signi- 
fies amber — a  mixed  metal  of  gold  and  silver — and  crystal.  From 
this  version  of  Ezekiel  i.  4 — *  And  in  the  midst  ofit  (the  whirlwind) 
os  the  appearance  oftlectrum  in  the  midst  of  a  fire' — it  appears  that 
the  translators,  by  electron  could  not  mean  either  amber  or  crystal ; 
the  former  of  which  grows  dim  as  soon  as  it  feels  the  fire,  and 
shortly  dissolves  into  a  resinous  or  pitchy  substance ;  the  latter  is 
scarcely  ever  put  into  a  fire,  or  if  it  were,  it  could  hardly  contract 
any  thing  from  it  but  soot  and  dimness.  It  remains  then,  that  they 
meant  the  mixed  metal  which  is  much  celebrated  by  the  ancients 
for  its  beautiful  lustre,  and  which,  when  exposed  to  the  fire,  does, 
like  other  metals,  grow  more  bright  and  shining.  Hence  the  LXX. 


COPPER.  347 

by  their  translation  seem  to  have  come  very  near  to  the  true  mean- 
ing of  the  Hebrew  word ;  for  as  Ezekiel  prophesied  among  the 
Chaldeans,  after  Jehoiachin's  captivity,  so  here,  as  in  other  instan- 
ces, he  seems  to  have  used  a  Chahlee  word ;  and  considered  as 
such,  chesmtl  may  be  derived  from  nechesh,  copper  (dropping  the 
initial  «),  and  the  Chaldee  melel,  gold,  as  it  comes  from  the  mine ; 
and  so  denotes,  either  a  mixed  metal  of  copper  and  gold,  such  as 
the  ./Es  Pyiopum  mentioned  in  the  ancient  Greek  and  Roman  wri- 
ters, and  thus  called  from  its  fiery  color,  and  the  noted  ^Es  Corin- 
thum  or  Corinthian  brass  :  or  else  chesmtl  may  signify  a  fine  kind 
of  copptr,  such  as  Aristotle  says  was  in  color  and  appearance  not 
distinguishable  from  gold,  and  which  it  is  probable  the  cups  of  Da- 
rius, mentioned  by  the  same  author,  and  the  two  vessels  of  fait  cop- 
per (yellow  or  shining  brass, — margin),  precious  as  gold,  (Ezra  viii. 
27)  were  made.  Scheuchzer,  who  of  the  various  interpretations  of 
chesmel  prefers  the  last  mentioned,  adds,  that  this  kind  of  fine  cop- 
per is  still  known  in  the  East  Indies  by  the  name  of  Suassa,  that  it 
is  used  in  making  rings  and  cups  for  great  men,  and  is  composed 
of  equal  parts  of  gold,  and  of  the  reddest  copper. 


COPPER. 

THIS  metal  which  of  all  the  imperfect  ones  approaches  nearest  ttf 
gold  and  silver,  is  only  mentioned  in  Ezra  viii.  27,  in  the  English 
Bible  ;  our  translators  having  rendered  the  word  nechseth  '  brass '  in 
other  passages  where  it  occurs ;  though,  according  to  most  interpre- 
ters, they,  have  been  guilty  of  an  anachronism,  the  formation  of  this 
factitious  metal  not  having  been  practised,  as  is  thought,  till  a  period 
long  subsequent  to  the  times  in  which  they  make  it  spoken  of. 

Dr.  Adam  Clarke,  however,  seems  inclined  to  justify  the  propri- 
ety of  our  translation,  in  some  of  these  passages ;  and  so'it  would  ap- 
pear does  Dr.  Geddes,  for  he  adopts  the  same  rendering.  The 
former  critic  remarks,  that  the  factitious  metal  commonly  called 
brass,  is  formed  by  a  combination  of  the  oxide  or  ore  of  zinc,  called 
lapis  calaminaris,  with  copper ;  that  brass  seems  to  have  been  very 
anciently  in  use,  and  that  the  preparation  of  copper,  to  transform 
it  into  this  factitious  metal,  seems  to  be  very  pointedly  referred  to 
in  Job  xxviii.  2:  *  Iron  is  taken  out  of  the  earth,  and  brass  is  mol- 
ten out  of  the  stone  ;  '—translated  by  the  Vulgate  Lapis  solutus  coJ- 
ore,  in  <zs  vertitur ;  *the  stone  liquified  by  heat,  is  turned  into  brass.' 
Is  it  going  too  far  to  say,  that  the  stone  here,  may  refer  to  the  lapit 
calaminaris,  which  was  used  to  turn  the  copper  into  brass?  Be- 
cause brass  was  capable  of  so  fine  a  polish  so  as  to  become  exceed* 
ingly  bright,  and  keep  its  lustre  a  considerale  time,  it  was  hence 
used  for  all  weapons  of  war,  and  defensive  armor,  among  ancient 


348  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

nations ;  and  copper  seems  to  have  been  in  no  repute,  but  for  its  use 
in  making  brass. 

Parkhurst  supposes  copper  to  be  called  necheshet,  from  the  resem- 
blance of  its  color  to  that  of  serpents,  (nechesh)  and  remarks  that 
Moses  made  the  serpent,  which  he  was  commanded  to  set  up,  of 
copper,  Numb.  xxi.  9  >  where  the  expression  is  remarkable  iviosh 
mesheh  nechesh  necheshtt.  So  gold  is  called  zeheb  from  its  splendor, 
and  silver  keseph,  from  its  pale  color.  And  as  man,  no  doubt,  was 
acquainted  with  animals  before  he  was  with  minerals  (Comp.  Gen. 
ii.  19.  20,  with  ch.  iv.  22),  it  seems  highly  probable,  as  this  ingenious 
critic  remarks,,  that  the  primeval  language  might,  in  some  instances, 
and  where  there  was  a  similarity  of  qualities,  describe  the  latter  by 
names  deduced  from  those  which  were  at  first  given  to  the  former. 
And  in  the  present  case  it  is  observable,  that  copper  is  not  only  of  a 
serpentine  color,  but  resembles  those  noxious  animals  in  its  destruc- 
tive properties,  being  in  all  its  preparations  accounted  poisonous. 
Dr.  Harris  proposes  to  read  netshet,  instead  of  necheshet,  which  we 
may  derive  from  the  verb  netesh  to  dig  up,  the  very  meaning  of 
*  fossil'  which  comes  from  the  Latin  word  fadio,  to  dig.  It  is  to  be 
regretted,  however,  that  this  writer  is  so  fond  of  conjectural  emen- 
dations of  the  sacred  text.  In  the  present  instance,  he  does  not 
pretend  to  say  that  he  is  supported  by  a  single  MS.  or  version,  as 
indeed  he  could  not;  and  therefore  his  conjecture,  however,  ingen- 
ous,  must  fall  to  the  ground. 

Our  translators  have  rendered  the  Hebrew  word  maroth,  in  Exod. 
xxxiit.  8,  and  Job  xxxvii.  1J,  'looking-glass.'  But  the  making  mir- 
rors of  glass,  coated  with  quicksilver,  is  an  invention  quite  modern. 
Dr.  Adam  Clarke  has  a  note  upon  the  place  in  Exodus,  where  our 
version  represents  Moses  as  making  '  the  laver  of  brass,  and  the 
foot  of  it  of  brass  of  the  looking-glasses  of  the  women.'  He  says, 
'Here  metal  highly  polished  must  certainly  be  meant,  as  glass  was 
not  yet  in  use;  and  had  it  been,  we  are  sure  that  looking- GLASSES 
could  not  make  a  BRAZEN  laver.  The  word,  therefore,  should  be 
rendered  mirrors,  not  looking-glasses,  which  in  the  above  verse  is 
perfectly  absurd,  because,  from  those  MAROTH  the  brazen  laver  was 
made.  The  first  mirrors  known  among  men  were  the  clear  still 
fountain,  and  unruffled  lake.  The  first  artificial  ones  were  appa- 
rently made  of  brass,  afterwards  of  polished  steel,  and  when  luxury 
increased  they  were  made  of  silver;  but  they  were  made,  at  a  very 
early  period,  of  mixed  metal,  particularly  of  tin  and  copper,  the  best 
of  which,  as  Pliny  tells  us,  were  formerly  manufactured  at  Brun- 
dusium.  But,  according  to  him,  the  most  esteemed  were  those 
made  of  tin :  and  he  says,  that  silver  mirrors  became  so  common 
that  even  the  servant  girls  used  them.  When  the  Egyptian  wo- 
men went  to  the  temples,  they  always  carried  their  mirrors  with 
them.  The  Israelitish  women  did  the  same ;  and  Dr.  Shaw  states, 
that  the  Arab  women  carry  them  constantly  hung  at  their  breasts. 

It  may  be  remarked,  that  the  word  *  looking-glass'  occurs  in  our 
version  of  Ecclesiasticua  xii,  11 :  '  Never  trust  thine  enemy ;  for 


IRON.  t  349 

like  as  iron  [marg.  brass]  nisteth*,  so  is  his  wickedness.  Though  he 
humble  himself,  and  go  crouching,  yet  take  heed  and  beware  of 
him,  and  thou  shalt  be  unto  him  as  if  thou  hadst  washed  a  looking- 
glass,  arid  thou  shalt  know  that  his  rust  hath  not  been  altogether 
wiped  away.'  This  passage  proves,  by  its  mention  of  rust,  that 
mirrors  were  then  made  of  polished  metal. 

The  fine  brass  of  Rev.  i.  15,  and  ch.  ii.  18,  is  rendered  by  the  Vul- 
gate aurichalco,  and  JBochart  has  shown  that  the  term  aurichalcum 
was  used  by  the  Romans  for  two  kinds  of  metals,  which  must  not 
be  confounded  with  each  other ;  the  one  was  native,  the  other  fac- 
titious; the  one  in  value  almost  equal  to  gold,  the  other  far  inferior 
to  it.  As  to  the  more  valuable  of  these  two,  though  it  is  mention- 
ed by  Hesiod  under  the  name  oreichalcon,  and  by  Virgil,  under  that 
of  orichalco,  yet  it  has  been  disputed  from  the  days  of  Aristotle 
whether  such  a  metal  ever  really  existed.  Pliny,  who  was  contem- 
porary with  the  apostles,  is  express,  that  there  was  none  of  it  to  be 
found  for  a  long  time  before  him.  We  may  be  pretty  certain,  there- 
fore, that  the  chalkolibanon,'m  the  Revelation,  denotes  the  worst  sort 
of  aurichalcum,  which  was  made  of  copper  and  ladmian  earth,  and 
therefore  very  nearly  resembled  our  brass ;  for  '  a  mass  of  copper, 
fused  with  an  equal  quantity  of  calamine  or  lapis  calaminaris  will 
thereby  be  considerably  augmented  in  quantity,  and  become  by  this 
operation  yellow  copper  or  brass.  Bochart  accordingly  observes,  that 
the  French  in  his  time  called  brass  archal,  by  a  corruption  of  the 
Latin  aurichalcum,  and  they  stiil  use  the  phrase  Fil  d?  arena!  for 
brass  wire. 

in  two  or  three  passages  our  translators  have  rendered  necheshet 
— steel. 


IRON. 

THIS  is,  without  dispute,  the  most  useful,  and,  consequently,  the 
most  valuable  of  all  known  metals.  By  its  means  the  earth  has 
been  cultivated  and  subdued,  houses  have  been  built,  cities  have 
been  constructed,  ships  have  been  formed,  machinery  has  been 
generated,  and  nations  have  been  enriched. 

Iron  is  seldom  found  in  a  native  state,  being  generally  mineraliz- 
ed with  some  acid,  and  assuming  the  form  of  ore.  It  is  evident 
from  Deut.  viii.  9,  that  Palestine  abounded  with  mines  of  this  met- 
al, though  we  believe  they  are  not  known  to  exist  at  present  in  any 
part  of  the  country  except  Lebanon.  Our  ignorance  of  their  exist- 
ence, however,  is  owing  to  ihe  jealousy  of  the  Arabs,  who  will  suf- 
fer no  traveller  to  examine  beneath  the  surface  of  the  earth,  lest  he 
should  possess  himself  of  any  treasure  which  may  be  there  con- 
cealed !  It  is  evident  from  the  earliest  books  of  the  Old  Testament, 
31 


350  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

that  iron  was  used  in  the  time  of  Moses,  not  only  for  offensive  and 
defensive  weapons,  but  also  for  articles  of  domestic  use.  Indeed, 
its  use  was  evidently  known  to  the  antediluvian  patriarchs,  who 
were  instructed  in  the  art  of  metallurgy  by  Tubal  Cain,  Gen.  iv. 
22. 

Since  iron  requires  the  strongest  fire  of  all  metals  to  fuse  it,  there 
is  a  peculiar  propriety,  says  Parkhurst,  in  the  expression, '  a  fur- 
nace for  iron.'  or  an  '  iron  furnace,'  for  violent  and  sharp  afflictions, 
Deut.  iv.  20 ;  1  Kings  viii.  51. 


LEAD. 

NEXT  to  gold  and  mercury,  lead  is  the  heaviest  of  metalline  sub- 
stances ;  but  in  hardness  it  is  exceeded  by  all  of  them.  It  is  of  a 
pale  and  livid  grey  color,  not  sonorous  when  pure,  and  extremely 
flexible.  The  most  common  state  in  which  it  is  procured  from  the 
mine,  is  in  combination  with  sulphur  and  a  small  quantity  of  silver, 
from  which  it  is  separated  by  passing  through  a  smelting  furnace, 
in  which  it  is  reduced  to  a  fluid  state. 

There  is  a  singular  passage  in  Jer.  vi.  28—30 :  « They  are  all  cop- 
per and  iron ; — they  are  corrupt.  The  bellows  are  burned,  being 
consumed  by  the  fire  ;  the  lead  (used  to  purify  the  ore)  is  vanished  ; 
the  refiner  melteth  in  vain  ;  but  the  wicked  (or  perhaps  the  bad 
heterogeneous  matters)  are  not  separated;  (and  this  being  the  case) 
reprobate  (or  refuse)  silver  shall  they  be  called,  for  Jehovah  hath  re- 
jected them.' 

From  Job  xix.  23,  24,  we  see  that  lead  was  in  early  use  as  a  ma- 
terial for  inscribing  such  things  upon  as  it  was  wished  to  preserve 
for  a  long  period  of  time.  Several  books  of  lead  have  been  found 
in  eastern  countries. 

In  2  Kings  ix.  30,  and  Jer.  iv.  30,  there  is  a  substance  spoken  of, 
which  was  used  by  females  for  the  purpose  of  coloring  their  eyes, 
called  pouk,  and  which  is  generally  thought  to  be  either  the  pow- 
der of  lead  ore.  or  the  plumbago  of  black  lead.  Shaw  and  Russell 
rtate,  that  the  former  of  these  is  used  for  this  purpose,  by  the  wo- 
men of  Barbary  and  Aleppo. 


TIN.  351 


TIN. 

THIS  metal,  so  useful  for  a  variety  of  purposes  in  the  present  day, 
was  also  known  in  the  time  of  Moses,  who  distinctly  notices  it  in 
liis  enumeration  of  the  six  kinds  of  metal,  in  Numb.  xxxi.  22. 

Silver,  of  all  the  metals,  suffers  most  from  an  admixture  of  tin,  a 
very  small  quantity  serving  to  make  that  metal  as  brittle  as  glass, 
and  what  is  worse,  being  with  great  difficulty  separated  from  it 
again.  The  very  vapor  of  tin  has  the  same  effect  as  the  metal  itself 
on  silver,  gold,  arid  copper,  rendering  them  brittle.  Hence  we  may 
see,  says  Parkhurst,  the  propriety  of  Jehovah's  denunciation,  by  the 
prophet  Isaiah,  chap.  i.  25 ;  for  having,  at  the  22d  verse,  compar- 
ed the  Jewish  people  to  silver,  he  declares  at  verse  25,  '  I  will  turn 
my  hand  upon  thee,  and  purge  away  thy  dross,  and  remove  all  thy 
particles  of  tin  ;  where  Aquila,  Symmachus,  Theodotion,  and  the 
Vulgate  read,  thy  tin;  but  the  LXX.  read  wicked  ones.  This  de- 
nunciation, however,  by  a  comparison  of  the  preceding  and  fol- 
lowing context,  appears  to  signify  that  God  would,  by  a  process  of 
judgment,  purify  those  among  the  Jews  who  were  capable  of  puri- 
fication, as  well  as  destroy  the  reprobate  and  incorrigible.  Comp. 
. Jer.  vi.  29,  30  ;  ix.  7 ;  Ezek.  xxii.  18,  20 ;  Mai.  iii.  3. 

In  Ezek.  xxvii.  12,  Tarshish  is  mentioned  as  furnishing  tin,  which 
country  is,  on  the  authority  of  Bochart,  generally  believed  to  be  the 
ancient  Tartessus  in  Spain.' 


SKETCHES 


O  F 


PALESTINE. 


31* 


SKETCHES   OF    PALESTINE. 


PALESTINE,  the  land  of  Israel,  the  kingdom  of  David  and  Solo- 
mon, the  most  favored  and  the  most  guilty  country  under  heaven  ; 
during  between  two  and  three  thousand  years,  the  only  section  of 
the  earth  where  the  worship  of  the  true  God  was  perpetuated, — 

'  Over  whose  acres  walked  those  blessed  feet 
Which  eighteen  hundred  years  ago  were  nailed, 
For  our  advantage,  to  the  bitter  cross  ' — 

this  most  interesting  of  countries  is  a  small  canton  of  Syria,  inclu- 
ded within  the  limits  of  the  Turkish  empire,  and  governed  by  the 
pashas  of  Acre  and  Damascus.  In  the  map,  it  presents  the  appear- 
ance of  a  narrow  slip  of  country,  extending  along  the  eastern  coast 
of  the  Mediterranean  ;  from  which,  to  the  river  Jordan,  the  utmost 
width  does  not  exceed  fifty  miles.  This  river  was  the  eastern  boun- 
dary of  the  land  of  Canaan,  or  Palestine,  properly  so  called,  which 
derived  its  name  from  the  Philistines  or  Palestines  originally  in- 
habiting the  coast.  To  three  of  the  twelve  tribes,  however,  Keuben, 
Gad,  and  Manasseh,  portions  of  territory  were  assigned  on  the  east- 
ern side  of  the  river,  which  were  afterwards  extended  by  the  sub- 
jugation of  the  neighboring  nations.  The  territory  of  Tyre  and 
Sidon  was  its  ancient  border  on  the  north-west:  the  range  of  the 
Libanus  and  Antilibanus  forms  a  natural  boundary  on  the  north 
and  north-east;  while  in  the  south  it  is  pressed  upon  by  the  Syri- 
an and  Arabian  deserts.  Within  this  circumscribed  district,  such 
were  the  physical  advantages  of  the  soil  and  climate,  there  existed, 
in  the  happiest  period  of  the  Jewish  nation,  an  immense  popula- 
tion. The  men  able  to  bear  arms  in  the  time  of  Moses,  somewhat 
exceeded  600,000 ;  which  computation,  when  the  Levites  (20,000) 
and  women  and  children  are  added,  will  give  nearly  two  millions 
and  a  half  as  the  amount  of  the  population — as  large  as  that  of 
Sweden.  The  kingdom  of  David  and  Solomon,  however,  extend- 
ed far  beyond  these  narrow  limits.  In  a  north-eastern  direction,  it 
was  bounded  only  by  the  river  Euphrates,  and  included  a  consider- 
able part  of  Syria. 

At  the  time  of  the  Christian  era,  Palestine  was  divided  into  five 
provinces  ;  Judea,  Samaria,  Galilee,  Perea,  and  Idumea.  On  the 
death  of  Herod,  Archelaus,  his  eldest  son,  succeeded  to  the  govern- 


356  SKETCHES  OF  PALESTINE. 

raent  of  Judea,  Samaria,  arid  Idurnea,  with  the  title  of  tetrarch ; 
Galilee  being  assigned  to  Herod  Anlipas,  and  Perea,  or  the  coun- 
try beyond  Jordan,  to  the  third  brother,  Philip.  But  in  less  than 
ten  years,  the  dominions  of  Archelaus  became  annexed,  on  his  dis- 
grace, to  the  Roman  province  of  Syria,  and  Judea  was  thenceforth 
governed  by  Roman  procurators.  Jerusalem,  after  its  final  destruc- 
tion by  Titus,  A.  D.  71,  remained  desolate  and  almost  uninhabited, 
till  the  emperor  Hadrian  colonized  it,  and  erected  temples  to  Jupi- 
ter and  Venus  on  its  site.  The  empress  Helena,  in  the  fourth  cen- 
tury, set  the  example  of  repairing  in  pilgrimage  to  the  Holy  Land, 
to  visit  the  scenes  consecrated  by  the  gospel  narrative,  and  the  coun- 
try became  enriched  by  the  crowds  of  devotees  who  flocked  there. 
In  the  beginning  of  the  seventh  century,  it  was  overrun  by  the  Sar- 
acens, who  held  it  till  Jerusalem  was  taken  by  the  crusadeis  in  the 
twelfth.  The  Latin  kingdom  of  Jerusalem  continued  for  about 
eighty  years,  during  which  the  Holy  Land  streamed  continually 
with  Christian  and  Saracen  blood.  In  1187,  Judea  was  conquered 
by  the  illustrious  Saladin,  on  the  decline  of  whose  kingdom  it  pass- 
ed through  various  revolutions,  and,  at  length,  in  1317,  was  final- 
ly swallowed  up  in  the  Turkish  empire. 

Palestine  is  now  distributed  into  pashalics.  That  of  Acre  or  Ak- 
ka  extends  from  Djebail  nearly  to  Jaffa ;  that  of  Gaza  comprehends 
Jaffa  and  the  adjacent  plains  ;  and  these  two  being  now  united,  ah1 
the  coast  is  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Pasha  of  Acre.  Jerusalem, 
Hebron,  Nablous,  Tiberias,  and  in  fact,  the  greater  part  of  Pales- 
tine, are  included  in  the  pashalic  of  Damascus,  now  held  in  con- 
junction with  that  of  Aleppo,  which  renders  the  present  pasha,  in  ef- 
fect, the  viceroy  of  Syria.  Though  both  pashas  continue  to  be  du- 
tiful subjects  to  the  Grand  Seignior  in  appearance,  and  annually 
transmit  considerable  sums  to  Constantinople  to  ensure  the  yearly 
renewal  of  their  office,  they  are  to  be  considered  as  tributaries,  rath- 
er than  subjects  of  the  Porte;  and  it  is  supposed  to  be  the  religious 
supremacy  of  the  sultan,  as  caliph  and  vicar  of  Mahomrned,  more 
than  any  apprehension  of  his  power,  which  prevents  them  from  de- 
claring themselves  independent.  The  reverence  shown  for  the  fir- 
rnauns  of  the  Porte  throughout  Syria,  attests  the  stronghold  which 
the  sultan  maintains,  in  this  character,  on  the  Turkish  population. 
The  pashas  of  Egypt  and  Bagdad  are  attached  to  the  Turkish  sove- 
reign by  the  same  ecclesiastical  tie,  which  alone  has  kept  the  ill- 
compacted  and  feeble  empire  from  crumbling  to  ruin. 

The  present  mixed  population  of  Palestine  consists  of  Turks, 
Syrians,  Bedouin  Arabs,  Jews,  Latin,  Greek,  and  Armenian  Chris- 
tians, Copts,  and  Druses.  In  western  Palestine,  especially  on  the 
coast,  the  inhabitants  are  stated  by  Burckhardt  to  bear  generally 
more  resemblance  to  the  natives  of  Egypt  than  to  those  of  northern 
Syria ;  while,  towards  the  east  of  Palestine,  especially  in  the  vil- 
lages about  Nablous,  Jerusalem,  and  Hebron,  they  are  evidently  of 
the  true  Syrian  stock  in  features,  though  not  in  language.  The 
Syrian  physiognomy  assumes,  however,  a  cast  of  features  charac- 


SKETCHES  OF  PALESTINE.  357 

teristically  different  in  the  Aleppine,  the  Turkman,  the  native  of 
Mount  Libanus,  the  Damascene,  the  inhabitant  of  the  sea-coast  from 
Beirout  to  Acre,  and  the  Bedouin.     Dr.  Richardson,  on  entering  the 
country  from  Egypt,  was  struck  at  the  change  of  physiognomy,  as 
well  as  of  costume,  observable  even  at  El  Arish,  which  is  in  the 
pashalic  of  Egypt :  the  people  are  much  fairer,  as  well  as  cleaner 
and  better  dressed.    The  Turks  in  Palestine,  as  elsewhere  through- 
out the  empire,  occupy  all  the  civil  and  military  posts,      Greeks 
forma  very  numerous  part  of  the  population.  A  considerable  num- 
ber of  monks,  of  different  churches  and  orders,  stili  reside  in  the 
Holy  Land :  there  is,  indeed,  scarcely  a  town  of  any  consequence, 
which  does  not  contain  at  least  one  convent.  The  country  districts 
are,  to  a  great  extent,  filled  witn  nomadic  Arabs.    The  true  Arab 
is  always  an  inhabitant  of  the  desert ;  a  name  given  to  any  solitude, 
whetfier  barren  or  fertile,  and  sometimes  applied  to  extensive  pas- 
ture-lands.    The  moveables  of  a  whole  family  seldom  exceed  a 
camel's  load.    Nothing  can  be  simpler  in  construction  than  their 
tents.     Three  upright  sticks,  driven  into  the  ground,  with  one  laid 
across  the  top,  form  the  frame- work,  ami  a  large  brown  cloth,  made 
of  goat's  or  camel's  hair,  woven  by  their  women,   the  covering. 
The   manner  in  which  they  secure  their  animals  is  equally  simple. 
Two  sticks  are  driven  into  the  ground,  between  which  a  rope  is 
stretched  and  fastened  at  each  end  ;  to  this  rope  the  asses  and  mules 
are  all  attached  by  the  feet ;  the  horses  also,  but  apart  from  the  ass- 
es;  the  camels  are  seldom  secured  at  all.      The  dress  of  this  peo- 
ple in  the  Holy  Land  consists  of  a  blue  shirt  or  tunic,  descending 
below  the  knees,  the  legs  and  feet  being  exposed :  or  the  latter  are 
sometimes  covered  with  the  ancient  cothurnus  or  buskin.  Over  this 
is  worn  a  cloak  of  very  coarse  and  heavy  camel's  hair  cloth,  (the 
sackcloth  of  the  Scriptures,)  consisting  of  one  square  piece,  with 
holes  for  the  arms,  but  having  a  seam  down  the  back.     This  ap- 
pears to  have  been  the  dress  of  John  the  Baptist,  as  well  as  of  the 
ancient  prophets.    The  cloak  (or  hyke)  is  almost  universally  deco- 
rated with  black  and  white  stripes,  passing  vertically  down  the  back. 
The  head-dress  is  a  small  turban,  resembling  a  coarse  handkerchief 
bound  across  the   temples,   one   corner  of  which  generally  hangs 
down,  and  is  often  fringed  with  strings  in  knots,  by  way  of  orna- 
ment.   The  usual  weapons  of  the  Arab  are  a  lance,  a  poniard,  an 
iron  mace,  a  battle-axe,  and  sometimes,  a  matchlock  gun.     The  u- 
sual  veil  worn  by  all  the  females  in  Syria,  except  the  Jewesses,  is 
a  large  white  handkerchief  or  shawl,  which  covers  the  head  and 
face,  and  falls  over  the  shoulders.    It  is  astonishing,  remarks  Dr. 
Richardson,  what  a  light  and  cheerful  air  this  costume  imparts  com- 
pared with  the  dull  funeral  drapery  of  the  Egyptian  dames.     In  the 
dress  of  the  pastoral  Arabs,  we  probably  have   preserved  the  most 
faithful  representation  of  the  ancient  Jewish  costume.      The  usual 
size  of  the  hyke  is  six  yards  long,  and  from  five  to  six  broad ;  and 
as  the  Arabs  sleep  in  their  raiment,  as  the  Israelites  did  of  old,  it 
serves  as  a  bed  or  blanket  at  night.     The  toga  of  the  Romans,  and 


358  SKETCHES  OF  PALESTINE. 

the  plaid  of  the  Highlanders  of  Scotland,  are  garments  of  the  same 
kind.  The  hahits  of  the  Bedouin  natives  have  probably  undergone 
as  little  change  as  their  costume.  '  Abraham,'  remarks  Dr.  Rich- 
ardson, '  was  a  Bedouin ;  and  I  never  saw  a  fine  venerable-looking 
sheikh  busied  among  his  flocks  and  herds,  that  it  did  not  remind  me 
of  the  holy  patriarch  himself.' 

NATURAL  HISTORY,  CLIMATE,  &c.     The  geographical  aspect  of 
Palestine  is  not  less  diversified  than  the  appearance  of  its   motley 
population.    Its  prevailing  character  but  imperfectly  corresponds 
to  its  ancient  fertility ;  but  this  is  chiefly  owing  to  the  miserable 
state  of  vassalage  in  which  its  inhabitants  are  held,  together  with 
the  devastating  effects  of  perpetual  wars,  and  probably  some  phys- 
ical changes.     Those    writers,   ancient   and   modern,   who    have 
represented  it  as  barren,  must  be  understood,  however,  as  referring 
only  to  the   mountainous  districts  round   Jerusalem.    Abulfeda 
describes  Palestine  as  the  most  fertile   part  of  Syria,  and   the 
neighborhood  of  Jerusalem  as  one  of  the  most  fruitful  parts  of 
Palestine.     An  Oriental's  ideas  of  fertility  differ  sufficiently  from 
ours,  to  explain  in  part  this  assertion ;  for  to  him,  plantations  of 
figs,  vines,  and  olives,  with  which  the  limestone  rocks  of  Judea 
were  once  covered,  would  suggest  the  same  associations  of  plenty 
and  opulence  that  are  called  up  in  the  mind  of  an  Englishman  by 
rich  tracts  of  corn-land.     The  land  of  Canaan  is  characterized  as 
flowing  with  milk  and  honey,  and  it  still  answers  to  this  descrip- 
tion; for  it  contains  extensive  pasture-lands  of  the  richest  quality, 
and  the  rocky  country  is  covered  with  aromatic  plants,  yielding  to 
the  wild  bees,  who  hive  in  the  hollow  of  the  rocks,  such  abun- 
dance of  honey,  as  to  supply  the  poorer  classes  with  an  article  of 
food.     Wild  honey  and  locusts  were  the  usual  diet  of  the  forerun- 
ner of  our  Lord,  during  his  seclusion  in  the  desert  country  of 
Judea ;  from  which  we  may  conclude  that  it  was  the  ordinary  fare 
of  the  common  people.     The  latter  are  expressly  mentioned  by 
Moses  as  lawful  and  wholesome  food  ;  and  Pliny  states  that  they 
made  a  considerable  part  of  the  food  of  the  Parthians  and  Ethio- 
pians.    They   are  still  ealen   in  many  parts  of  the  East:    when 
sprinkled  with  salt  and  fried,  they  are  said  to  taste  much  like  the 
river  cray-fish.     Honey  from  the  rocks  is  repeatedly  referred  to  in 
the  Scriptures,  as  a  delicious   food,  and   an  emblem   of  plenty. 
Dates  are  another  important  article  of  consumption,  and  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Judea  was  famous  for  its  numerous  palrn-trees,  which 
are  found  springing  up  from  chance-sown  kernels  in  the  midst  of 
the  most  arid  districts.     When  to  these  wild  productions  we  add 
the  oil  extracted   from  the  olive,  so  essential  an  article   to   an 
Oriental,  we  shall  be  at  no  loss  to  account  for  the.  ancient  fertility 
of  the  most  barren  districts  of  Judea,  or  for  the  adequacy  of  the 
«oil  to  the  support  of  so  numerous  a  population,  notwithstanding 
the  comparatively  small  proportion  of  arable  land.     There  is  no 
reason  to  doubt,  however,  that  corn  and  rice  would  be  imported  by 
the  Tyrian  merchants,  which  the  Israelites  would  have  uo  difficul- 


SKETCHES  OF  PALESTINE.  359 

ty  in  exchanging  for  the  produce  of  the  olive-ground  and  the 
vineyard,  or  for  their  flocks  and  herds.    Delicious  wine  is  still  pro- 
duced in  some  districts,  and  the  valleys  bear  plentiful  crops  of 
tobacco,  wheat,  barley,  and  millet,     Tacitus  compares  both  the 
climate  and  the  soil,  indeed,  to  those  of  Italy,  and  he  particularly 
specifies  the  palm-tree  and  balsam-tree  as  productions  which  gave 
the  country  an  advantage  over  his  own.    Among  other  indigenous 
productions,  may  be  enumerated  the  cedar  and  other  varieties  of 
the  pine,  the  cypress,  the  oak,  the  sycamore,  the  mulberry-tree,  the 
fig-tree,  the  willow,  the  turpentine-tree,  the  acacia,  the  aspen,  the 
arbutus,  the  myrtle,  the  almond-tree,  the  tamarisk,  the  oleander, 
the  peach-tree,  the  chaste-tree,  the  carob  or  locust-tree,  the  oskar, 
the  doom,  the  mustard-plant,  the  aloe,  the  citron,  the  apple,  the 
pomegranate,  and  many  flowering  shrubs.    The  country  about 
Jericho  was  celebrated  for  its  balsam,  as  well  as  for  its  palm-trees ; 
and  two  plantations  of  it  existed  during  the  last  war  between  the 
Jews  and  the  Romans,  for  which  both  parties  fought  desperately. 
But  Gilead  appears  to  have  been  the  country  in  which  it  chiefly 
abounded :  hence  the  name,  balm  of  Gilead.     Since  the  country 
has  fallen  under  the  Turkish  dominion,  it  has  ceased  to  be  culti- 
vated in  Palestine,  but  is  still  found  in  Arabia.     Other  indigenous 
productions  have  either  disappeared,  or  are  now  confined  to  cir- 
cumscribed districts.    Iron  is  found  in  the  mountain  range  of  Li- 
banus,  and  silk  is  produced  in  abundance  in  the  plains  of  Samaria. 
Generally  speaking,  the  climate  is  mild  and  salubrious.    During 
the  months  of  May,  June,  July,  and  August,  the  sky  is  for  the  most 
part  cloudless  ;  but  during  the  night  the  earth  is  moistened  with  a 
copious  dew.    As  in  Persia,  sultry  days  are  not  unfrequently  suc- 
ceeded by  intensely  cold  nights.    To  these  sudden   vicissitudes 
references  are  made  in  the  Old  Testament.    During  the  other  parts 
of  the  year,  there  is  no  deficiency  of  rain  ;  and  to  this  circumstance 
the  fertility  of  Palestine  is  chiefly  attributable,  in  the  absence  of 
springs.     The  streams  with  which  it  is  watered,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  river  Jordan,  are  all  brooks  or  torrents  fed  by  the 
copious  periodical  rains.    In  the  dry  season,  the  only  resource  of 
the  natives  is,  the  wells  or  the  water  collected  in  the  rainy  season. 
Hence  the  high  importance  attaching  to  the  possession  of  a  well  in 
this    country,  and    the  value  set  upon  a  cup  of   cold    water. 
Throughout  Syria,  the  traveller  perceives,  at  stated  distances  on 
the  road,  small  reservoirs  or  large  vases  filled  with  water,  having 
beside  them  a  pot  for  the  use  of  passengers  when  thirsty.    These 
monuments  are  owing  to  pious  foundations  in  favor  of  travellers; 
but  the  greater  part  are  falling  into  ruin.    It  is  remarkable  that  in 
Arabia,  most  of  the  inhabited  places  are  situated  in   valleys  or 
hollows:  in  Palestine,  on  the  contrary,  the  towns  and  villages  are 
almost  uniformly  built  upon  hills  or  heights.    The  scarcity  of  the 
rains  in  Arabia,  and  their  abundance  in  Palestine,  has  been  with 
some  plausibility  assigned  as  the  reason  for  this  difference.    The 
floods  in  the  rainy  season  sometimes  pour  down  from  the  hills 


360  SKETCHES  OF  PALESTINE. 

with  such  violence  as  to  sweep  every  thing  before  them.  The 
Jordan,  from  this  cause,  formerly  rose  periodically  above  its  banks. 
Whether  it  has  worn  for  itself  u  deeper  channel,  or  discharges  its 
superfluous  waters  by  some  other  means,  is  not  ascertained,  but  the 
rise  is  now  insufficient  to  produce  inundation. 

We  have  but  imperfect  notices  of  the  present  zoology  and  orni- 
thology of  Palestine.  The  Scriptures  contain  familiar  references 
to  the  lion,  the  wolf,  the  fox,  the  leopard,  the  hart,  the  jackal,  and 
the  wild  boar,  which  lead  one  to  suppose  that  they  were  native 
animals.  The  wilder  animals,  however,  have  mostly  disappeared, 
liasselquist,  a  pupil  of  Linnaeus,  who  visited  the  iloly  Land  in 
1750,  men  lions,  as  the  only  animals  he  saw,  the  porcupine,  the 
jackal,  the  fox,  the  rock-goat,  and  the  fallow-deer.  Captain 
Mangles  describes  an  animal  qf  the  goat  species  as  large  as  the  ass, 
with  long,  knotty,  upright  horns  ;  some  bearded,  and  their  color 
resembled  that  of  the  gazelle.  The  horse  does  not  appear  to  have 
been  generally  adopted,  till  after  the  return  of  the  Jews  from 
Babylon.  Solomon  was  the  first  monarch  who  collected  a  numer- 
ous stud  of  the  finest  horses  that  Egypt  or  Arabia  could  furnish. 
In  the  earlier  times,  the  wild  ass  was  deemed  worthy  of  being 
employed  for  purposes  of  royal  state  as  well  as  convenience.  The 
breed  of  cattle  reared  in  Bashan  and  Gilead  were  remarkable  for 
their  size,  strength,  and  fatness. 

In  ornithology,  the  eagle,  the  vulture,  the  cormorant,  the  bittern, 
the  stork,  the  owl,  the  pigeon,  the  swallow,  and  the  dove,  were  fa- 
miliar to  the  Jews.  Hasselquist  enumerates  the  following  from  his 
own  observation :  the  vulture,  two  species,  one  seen  near  Jerusa- 
lem, the  other  near  Caua  in  Galilee  ;  the  falcon,  near  Nazareth  ;  the 
jackdaw,  in  numbers  in  the  oak-woods  near  Galilee ;  the  green 
wood-spite,  at  the  same  place ;  the  bee-catcher,  in  the  groves  and 
plains  between  Acra  and  Nazareth  ;  the  nightingale,  among  the 
willows  at  Jordan  and  olive  trees  of  Judeu  ;  the  hekl-Jark,  'every 
where  ; '  the  goldfinch,  in  the  gardens  near  Nazareth  ;  the  red  part- 
ridge, and  two  other  species,  the  quail,  and  the  quaii  of  the  Isra- 
elites ;  the  turtle-dove  and  the  ring-dove.  Game  is  abundant ;  part- 
ridges, in  particular,  being  found  in  large  coveys,  so  fat  and  heavy, 
that  they  may  easily  be  knocked  down  with  a  stick.  Wild  geese, 
ducks,  widgeon,  snipe,  and  water-fowl  of  every  description,  abound 
in  some  situations. 

The  Holy  Land  is  at  present  infested  with  a  frightful  number  of 
lizards,  different  kinds  of  serpents,  vipers,  scorpions,  and  various 
insects.  Flies  of  every  species  are  also  extremeJy  annoying.  Ants 
are  so  numerous  in  some  pains,  that  one  traveller  describes  the  road 
to  Jafia,  from  El  Arisch,  as,  for  three  da^s'  journey,  a  continued 
ant-hill. 

The  general  outlines  of  the  surface  of  the  country  may  be  thus 
laid  down.  The  Jordan,  or  river  of  Dan,  which  rises  under  the  lof- 
ty peaks  of  the  Antilibanus,  and  flows  in  a  direction  almost  con- 
stantly southward,  with  the  fake  of  Tiberias,  through  which  it  pass- 


SKETCHES  OF  PALESTINE.  361 

ses,  and  that  of  Asphaltites  (the  Dead  Sea),  which  it  forms  by  its 
discharge,  divides  Palestine  completely  from  north  to  south.  In 
the  western  division,  between  the  Mediterranean  and  the  lake  of 
Tiberias,  lie  the  two  Galilees.  The  plain  of  Esdraelon,  which  oc- 
cupies the  greater  part  of  this  tract,  being  two  day's  journey,  or 
nearly  fifty  miles  in  length  and  twenty  in  breadth,  is  described  by 
Dr.  Clarke  as  one  vast  meadow,  covered  with  the  richest  pasture. 
This  plain  is  enclosed  on  all  sides  by  the  mountains,  and  riot  a 
house  or  a  tree  is  to  be  discovered  in  it.  Jt  is  completely  com- 
manded by  Acre,  so  that  the  possessor  of  that  port  is  the  lord  of  one 
of  the  richest  territories  in  the  Holy  Land.  To  the  south  of  Galilee 
lies  the  district  of  ancient  Samaria,  now  chiefly  included  in  the  dis- 
trict of  Nablous:  it  is  mountainous,  but  well  cultivated,  and  forms 
at  present  the  most  flourishing  part  of  the  Holy  Land.  Judea  Pro- 
per comprises  the  territory  extending  from  the  Dead  Sea  to  the 
Mediterranean,  and  is  composed  of  a  range  of  limestone  hills,  ris- 
ing by  stages  from  the  level  of  the  coast,  and  becoming  more  rug- 
ged and  rocky  as  you  approach  Jerusalem  from  Jafia.  .Between 
Jaffa  and  Gaza,  westward  of  the  mountains  of  Judea,  lies  the  tract 
distinguished  as  the  plain  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  the  ancient  ter- 
ritory of  the  Philistines,  including  the  rive  cities  of  Gaza,  Askelon, 
Ashdod,  Gath  and  Ekron.  This  district  still  bears  the  name  of 
Phalastin,  and  forms  a  separate  pashalic :  it  may  be  distinguished  as 
Palestine  Proper. 

JERUSALEM. 

The  approach  to  Jerusalem  from  Jaffa  is  not  the  direction  in 
which  to  see  the  city  to  the  best  effect.  Dr.  Clarke  entered  it  by  •  the 
Damascus  gate,  and  he  describes  the  view  of  Jerusalem,  when  first 
descried  from  the  summit  of  a  hill,  at  about  an  hour's  distance,  as 
most  impressive.  He  confesses,  at  the  same  time,  that  there  is  no 
other  point  of  view  in  which  it  is  seen  to  so  much  advantage,  in 
the  celebrated  prospect  from  the  Mount  of  Olives,  the  city  ties  too 
low,  is  too  near  the  eye,  and  has  too  much  the  character  ol  a  bird's- 
eye  view,  with  the  formality  of  a  topographical  plan.  '  We  had  not 
been  prepared,'  says  this  lively  traveller,  *  tor  the  grandeur  of  the 
spectacle  which  the  city  alone  exhibited.  Instead  of  a  wretched 
and  ruined  town,  by  some  described  as  the  desolated  remnant  of 
Jerusalem,  we  beheld,  as  it  were,  a  flourising  and  stately  metropolis, 
presenting  a  magnificent  assemblage  of  domes,  towers,  palaces, 
churches,  and  monasteries ;  all  of  which  glittering  in  the  suu's  rays, 
shone  with  inconceivable  splendor.  As  we  drew  nearer,  our  whole 
attention  was  engrossed  by  its  noble  and  interesting  appearance. 
The  lofty  hills  surrounding  it,  give  the  city  itself  an  appearance  of 
elevation  less  than  it  really  has.'  Dr.  Clarke  was  loitunate  in 
catching  this  first  view  of  Jerusalem  under  the  illusion  of  a  brilliant 
evening  sunshine ;  but  his  description  is  decidedly  overcharged. 
M.  Chateaubriand,  Mr.  Buckingham,  Mr.  Brown,  Mr.  Jollitte,  Sir 
32 


362  SKETCHES  OF  PALESTINE. 

F.  Henniker,  and  almost  every  other  modern  traveller,  confirm  the 
representation  of  Dr.  Richardson.  Mr.  Buckingham  says:  'The 
appearance  of  this  celebrated  city,  independent  of  the  feelings  and 
recollections  which  the  approach  to  it  cannot  fail  to  awaken,  was 
greatly  inferior  to  my  expectations,  and  had  certainly  nothing  of 
grandeur  or  beauty,  of  stateliness  or  magnificence,  about  it.  It  ap- 
peared like  a  walled  town,  of  the  third  or  fourth  class,  having  nei- 
ther towers,  nor  domes,  nor  minarets  within  it  in  sufficient  numbers 
to  give  even  a  character  to  its  impressions  on  the  beholder ;  but 
showing  chiefly  large  flat-roofed  buildings  of  the  most  unornament- 
ed  kind,  seated  amid  rugged  hills,  on  a  stony  and  forbidding  soil, 
with  scarcely  a  picturesque  object  in  the  whole  compass  of  the  sur- 
rounding view.' 

Chateaubriand's  description  is  very  striking  and  graphical.  After 
citing  the  language  of  the  prophet  Jeremiah,  in  his  lamentations  on 
the  desolation  of  the  ancient  city,  as  accurately  portraying  its  pre- 
sent state,  he  thus  proceeds: — 

*  When  seen  from  the  Mount  of  Olives,  on  the  other  side  of  the 
valley  of  Jehoshaphat,  Jerusalem  presents  an  inclined  plane,  de- 
scending from  west  to  east.     An  embattled  wall,  fortified  with  tow- 
ers and  a  Gothic  castle,  encompasses  the  city  all  round  ;  excluding, 
however,  part  of  Mount  Sion,  which  it  formerly  enclosed.     In  the 
western  quarter,  and  in  the  centre  of  the  city,  the  houses  stand  ve- 
ry close ;  but,  in  the  eastern  part,  along  the  brook  Kedron,  you  per- 
ceive vacant  spaces;  among  the  rest,  that  which  surrounds  the 
mosque  erected  on  the  ruins  of  the  Temple,  and  the  nearly-desert- 
ed spot  where  once  stood  the  castle  of  Antonia  and  the  second  pal- 
ace of  Herod. 

'  The  houses  of  Jerusalem  are  heavy  square  masses,  very  low, 
without  chimneys  or  windows ;  they  have  flat  terraces  or  domes  on 
the  top,  and  look  like  prisons  or  sepulchres.  The  whole  would  ap- 
pear to  the  eye  one  uninterrupted  level,  did  not  the  steeples  of  the 
churches,  the  minarets  of  the  mosques,  the  summits  of  a  few  cy- 
presses, and  the  clumps  of  nopals,  break  the  uniformity  of  the  plan. 
On  beholding  these  stone  buildings,  encompassed  by  a  stony  coun- 
try, you  are  ready  to  inquire  if  they  are  not  the  confused  monu- 
ments of  a  cemetery  in  the  midst  of  a  desert. 

*  Enter  the  city,  but  nothing  will  you  there  find  to  make  amends 
for  the  dulness  of  its  exterior.     You  lose  yourself  among  narrow, 
unpaved  streets ;  here  going  up  hill,  there  going  down,  from  the 
inequality  of  the  ground  ;  and  you  walk  among  clouds  of  dust,  or 
loose  stones.    Canvas  stretched  from  house  to  house  increases  the 
gloom  of  this  labyrinth.    Bazars,  roofed  over,  and  fraught  with 
infection,  completely  exclude  the  light  from  the  desolate  city.    A 
few  paltry  shops  expose  nothing  but  wretchedness  to  view,  and 
even  these  are  frequently  shut,  from  apprehension  of  the  passage 
of  a  cadi.    Not  a  creature  is  to  be  seen  in  the  streets,  not  a  creature 
at  the  gates,  except  now  and  then  a  peasant  gliding  through  the 
gloom    concealing  under  his  garments  the  fruits  of  his  labor, 


SKETCHES  OF  PALESTINE.  363 

lest  he  should  be  robbed  of  his  hard  earnings  by  the  rapacious 
soldier.  Aside,  in  a  corner,  the  Arab  butcher  is  slaughtering 
some  animal,  suspended  by  the  legs  from  a  wall  in  ruins :  from 
his  haggard  and  ferocious  look,  and  his  bloody  hands,  you  would 
suppose  that  he  had  been  cutting  the  throat  of  a  fellow-creature, 
rather  than  killing  a  lamb.  The  only  noise  heard  from  time  to 
time  in  the  city,  is  the  galloping  of  the  steed  of  the  desert :  it  is  the 
janissary  who  brings  the  head  of  the  Bedouin,  or  who  returns  from 
plundering  the  unhappy  Fellah. 

*  Amid  this  extraordinary  desolation,  you  must  pause  a  moment 
to  contemplate  two  circumstances  still  more  extraordinary. 
Among  the  ruins  of  Jerusalem,  two  classes  of  independent  people 
find  in  their  religion  sufficient  fortitude  to  enable  them  to  surmount 
such  complicated  horrors  and  wretchedness.  Here  reside  commu- 
nities of  Christian  monks,  whom  nothing  can  compel  to  forsake 
the  tomb  of  Christ ;  neither  plunder  nor  personal  ill-treatment,  nor 
menaces  of  death  itself.  Night  and  day  they  chaunt  their  hymns 
around  the  Holy  Sepulchre.  Driven  by  the  cudgel  and  the  sabre, 
women,  children,  flocks,  and  herds,  seek  refuge  in  the  cloisters  of 
these  recluses.  What  prevents  the  armed  oppressor  from  pursuing 
his  prey,  and  overthrowing  such  feeble  ramparts  ?  The  charity  of 
the  monks :  they  deprive  themselves  of  the  last  resources  of  life 
to  ransom  their  suppliants Cast  your  eyes  between  the  Tem- 
ple and  Mount  Sion ;  behold  another  petty  tribe,  cut  off  from  the 
rest  of  the  inhabitants  of  this  city.  The  particular  objects  of  eveiy 
species  of  degradation,  these  people  bow  their  heads  without  mur- 
muring; they  endure  every  kind  of  insult  without  demanding 
justice;  they  sink  beneath  repeated  blows  without  sighing:  if 
their  head  be  required,  they  present  it  to  the  scimitar.  On  the 
death  of  any  member  of  this  proscribed  community,  his  companion 
goes  at  night,  and  inters  him  by  stealth  in  the  valley  of  Jehoshaphat, 
in  the  shadow  of  Solomon's  Temple.  Enter  the  abodes  of  these 
people,  you  will  find  them,  amid  the  most  abject  wretchedness, 
instructing  their  children  to  read  a  mysterious  book,  which  they  in 
their  turn  will  teach  their  offspring  to  read.  What  they  did  five 
thousand  years  ago,  these  people  still  continue  to  do.  Seventeen 
times  have  they  witnessed  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  yet  no- 
thing can  discourage  them,  nothing  can  prevent  them  from 
turning  their  faces  towards  Sion.  To  see  the  Jews  scattered 
over  the  whole  world,  according  to  the  Word  of  God,  must 
doubtless  excite  surprise.  But  to  be  struck  with  supernat- 
ural astonishment,  you  mast  view  them  at  Jerusalem ;  you 
must  behold  these  rightful  masters  of  Judea  living  as  slaves 
and  strangers  in  their  own  country  ;  you  must  behold  them  expect- 
ing, under  all  oppressions,  a  king  who  is  to  deliver  them.  Crushed 
by  the  Cross  that  condemns  them,  skulking  near  the  Temple,  of 
which  not  one  stone  is  left  upon  another,  they,  continue  in  their 
deplorable  infatuation.  The  Persians,  the  Greeks,  the  Romans,  are 
swept  from  the  earth ;  and  a  petty  tribe,  whose  origin  preceded  that 


364  SKETCHES  OF  PALESTINE. 

of  those  great  nations,  still  exists  unmixed  among  the  ruins  of  its 
native  land.' 

But  the  Jerusalem  of  sacred  history  is,  in  fact,  no  more.  Not 
a  vestige  remains  of  the  capital  of  David  and  Solomon ;  not  a  mon- 
ument of  Jewish  times  is  standing.  The  very  course  of  the  walls 
is  changed,  and  the  boundaries  of  the  ancient  city  are  become 
doubtful.  The  monks  pretend  to  show  the  sites  of  the  sacred 
places ;  but  neither  Calvary,  nor  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  much  less 
the  Dolorous  Way,  the  house  of  Caiaphas,  &c.,  have  the  slightest 
pretensions  to  even  a  probable  identity  with  the  real  places  to 
which  the  tradition  refers.  Dr.  Clarke  has  the  merit  of  being  the 
first  modern  traveller  who  ventured  to  speak  of  the  preposterous 
legends  and  clumsy  forgeries  of  the  priests  with  the  contempt 
which  they  merit.  'To  men  interested  in  tracing,  within  the 
walls,  antiquities  referred  to  by  the  documents  of  sacred  history,  no 
spectacle,'  remarks  the  learned  traveller, '  can  be  more  mortifying 
than  the  city  in  its  present  state.  The  mistaken  piety  of  the  early 
Christians,  in  attempting  to  preserve,  has  either  confused  or  an- 
nihilated the  memorials  it  was  anxious  to  render  conspicuous. 
Viewing  the  havoc  thus  made,  it  may  now  be  regretted  that  the 
Holy  Land  was  ever  rescued  from  the  dominion  of  Saracens,  who 
were  far  less  barbarous  than  their  conquerors.  The  absurdity,  for 
example,  of  hewing  the  rocks  of  Judea  into  shrines  and  chapels, 
and  of  disguising  the  face  of  nature  with  painted  domes  and  gilded 
marble  coverings,  by  way  of  commemorating  the  scenes  of  our 
Saviour's  life  and  death,  is  so  evident,  and  so  lamentable,  that 
even  Sandys,  with  all  his  credulity,  could  not  avoid  a  happy 
application  of  the  reproof  conveyed  by  the  Roman  satirist  against 
a  similar  violation  of  the  Egerian  fountain.' 

The  Jerusalem  that  now  is,  is  still  a  respectable,  good-looking 
town,  of  an  irregular  shape,  approaching  to  a  square  ;  it  is  surround- 
ed by  a  high,  embattled  wall,  built  for  the  most  part  of  the  com- 
mon stone  of  the  country,  which  is  a  compact  limestone.  It  has 
now,  including  the  golden  gate,  seven  gates.  One  looks  to  the  west, 
and  is  called  the  gate  of  YafFa,  or  Bethlehem,  because  the  road  to 
those  places  passes  through  it.  Two  look  to  the  north,  and  are  call- 
ed the  gate  of  Damascus,  and  the  gate  of  Herod  or  Ephraim  gate. 
A  fourth  looking  to  the  east,  is  called  St.  Stephen's  gate,  because 
near  it  the  proto-martyr  was  stoned  to  death  ;  it  is  close  to  the  tem- 
ple, or  mosque  of  Omar,  and  leads  to  the  gardens  of  Gethsernane 
and  the  Mount  of  Olives.  The  fifth  leads  into  the  Temple,  but  is 
now  built  up,  owing,  it  is  said,  to  a  tradition  that  the  Christians  will 
take  the  city  by  this  gate :  it  is  called  the  golden  gate.  Another 
gate  leads  from  without  the  city  into  the  mosque  of  El  Aksa,  for- 
merly the  church  of  the  presentation,  and  is  called  the  gate  of  the 
Virgin  Mary.  On  account  of  a  turn  in  the  wall,  this  gate,  though 
in  the  east  wall  of  tfie  city,  looks  to  the  south  towards  Mount  Zion ; 
it  is  not,  however,  strictly  speaking,  a  gate  of  the  city.  What,  there- 
fore, we  reckon  the  sixth  gate,  is  the  dung  gate,  or  sterquiline  gate. 


SKETCHES  OF  PALESTINE.  365 

This  is  small,  not  admitting  either  horses  or  carriages,  (of  the 
••alter,  however,  there  are  none  in  Jerusalem)  ;  and  from  the  wall 
resuming  its  former  direction,  it  looks  towards  the  east.  The  last 
is  called  Zion  gate,  or  the  gate  of  the  prophet  David  ;  it  looks  to 
the  south,  and  is  in  that  part  of  the  wall  which  passes  over  Mount 


The  longest  wall  is  that  on  the  north  side  of  the  city,  which  runs 
from  the  valley  of  Gihon  on  the  west,  to  the  valley  of  Jehoshaphat 
on  the  east.  The  circumference  of  the  area  now  enclosed  within 
the  walls,  does  not  exceed,  according  to  the  measurement  of  Maun- 
drell  and  Pococke,  two  of  our  most  accurate  travellers,  two  miles 
and  a  half.  The  city  may  be  roughly  stated  to  be  about  a  mile  in 
length,  and  half  a  mile  in  breadth.  Pococke  accurately  describes 
it  as  standing  at  the  south  end  of  a  large  plain  that  extends  north- 
wards towards  Samaria,  though  it  in  fact  immediately  occupies  two 
small  hills,  having  valleys  or  ravines  on  the  other  three  sides,  which, 
to  the  east  and  south,  are  very  deep.  That  on  the  east  is  the  the  val- 
ley of  Jehoshaphat  ;  that  on  the  south  is  called  the  valley  of  Siloam, 
and  (erroneously)  of  Gehinnom  ;  that  on  the  west,  which  is  not  so 
deep,  the  valley  of  Rephaim.  The  hills  on  the  other  side  of  these 
valleys  are,  for  the  most  part,  considerably  higher  than  either  Mount 
Zion"  or  Acra.  On  the  east,  Jerusalem  is  commanded  by  the  Mount 
of  Olives,  called  Djebel  Tor  by  the  Arabs.  On  the  south,  by  what 
the  Christians  absurdly  denominate  the  Hill  of  Offence  and  the 
Hill  of  Evil  Counsel.  On  the  west,  by  a  low  rocky  flat,  which  ri- 
ses towards  the  north  to  a  commanding  elevation  ;  this  has  been 
called  Mount  Gihon.  On  the  north-west,  Scopo,  where  Titus  en- 
camped, is  also  higher  ground  than  that  on  which  Jerusalem  stands, 
So  that  the  Scripture  representation  of  Jerusalem,  as  guarded  by 
mountains,  literally  answers  to  its  topographichal  situation  ;  '  As  the 
mountains  are  round  about  Jerusalem,  so  the  Lord  is  round  about 
his  people,  from  henceforth,  even  forever.' 

The  site  of  the  ancient  city  is  so  unequivocally  marked  by  its 
natural  boundaries  on  the  three  sides  where  there  are  ravines,  that 
there  can  be  no  difficulty,  except  with  regard  to  its  extent  in  a  north- 
ern direction  ;  and  this  may  be  ascertained  with  sufficient  accuracy 
from  the  minute  description  given  by  Josephus,  His  account  of 
its  topography  is,  after  all,  the  best  guide  to  the  modern  traveller 
and  antiquary.  *  The  city  of  Jerusalem,'  he  tells  us,  '  was  fortified 
with  three  walls,  on  such  parts  as  were  not  encompassed  with  im- 
passable valleys  ;  for  in  such  places  it  hath  but  one  wall.  The  city 
was  built  upon  two  hills,  which  are  opposite  to  one  another,  and 
have  a  valley  dividing  them  asunder,  at  which  valley  the  corres- 
ponding rows  of  houses  on  both  hills  terminate.  Of  these  hills, 
that  which  contains  the  upper  city  is  much  higher,  and  in  length 
more  direct  ;  accordingly,  it  was  called  the  Citadel  by  king  David  ; 
he  was  the  father  of  that  Solomon  who  built  this  Temple  at  the 
first  ;  but  it  is  by  us  called  the  Upper  Market-place.  But  the  oth- 
er bill,  which  was  called  Acra.  and  sustains  the  lower  city,  is  in 
32* 


36G  SKETCHES  OF  PALESTINE. 

the  shape  of  the  moon  when  she  is  horned.  Over  against  this  there 
was  a  third  hill,  naturally  lower  than  Acra,  and  parted  formerly 
from  the  other  by  a  broad  valley.  However,  in  those  times  when 
the  Asmoneans  reigned,  they  filled  up  that  valley  with  earth,  and 
had  a  mind  to  join  the  city  to  the  Temple.  They  then  took  off 
part  of  the  height  of  Acra,  and  reduced  it  to  be  of  less  elevation 
than  it  was  before,  that  the  Temple  might  be  superior  to  it.  Now 
the  Valley  of  the  Cheesemongers,  as  it  was  called,  and  was  that 
which  we  told  you  before  distinguished  the  hill  of  the  upper  city 
from  that  of  the  lower,  extended  as  far  as  Siloam  ;  for  that  is  the 
name  of  a  fountain  which  hath  sweet  water  in  it,  and  this  in  great 
plenty  also.  But  on  the  outside  these  hills  are  surrounded  by  deep 
valleys,  and,  by  reason  of  the  precipices  on  both  sides,  are  every- 
where impassable. 

THE  HOLY  SEPULCHRE.  The  chureh  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  is 
built  partly  on  the  low  ground  and  partly  on  the  ascent.  It  is  not 
entered  from  the  Via  Dolorosa :  the  traveller  has  to  ascend  the  next 
street,  and  then,  turning  to  the  left,  to  proceed  along  a  winding  de- 
scent, till  he  arrives  at  a  large  open  court  in  front  of  the  church, 
where  he  will  find  everything  his  heart  can  wish  in  the  form  of 
crucifixes,  carved  shells,  beads  and  bracelets,  saints,  and  sherbet ; 
all  exposed  to  sale,  and  the  venders  seated  on  the  ground  beside 
their  wares.  The  court  is  bounded  by  the  wings  of  the  convent; 
that  on  the  right  contains  Mount  Calvary,  and  other  supposititious 
sacred  places;  that  on  the  left,  the  Greek  chapel,  and  anciently  the 
belfry.  The  door  of  the  church  faces  the  court ;  it  is  on  the  side  of 
the  building.  It  is  open  only  on  certain  days  in  the  week,  and  cer- 
tain hours  in  each  day.  To  get  it  opened  at  any  other  time,  it  is 
necessary  to  have  an  order  of  the  two  convents,  the  Latin  and  the 
Greek,  with  the  sanction  of  the  governor  of  the  city.  When  open, 
the  door  is  always  guarded  by  Turks,  who  exact  a  tribute  from  all 
who  enter.  Once  admitted,  the  visiters  may  remain  all  night,  if 
they  please.  The  crowd  pressing  for  admittance  on  certain  days 
is  immense  ;  and  the  Turks,  who  keep  the  door,  treat  them  in  the 
roughest  manner,  notwithstanding  that  they  pay  for  admission, 
squeezing  and  beating  them  about  like  so  many  cattle.  '  It  must 
be  allowed,'  says  Dr.  Richardson,  'that  they  are  often  extremely 
riotous,  and  conduct  themselves  in  a  manner  very  unbecoming  their 
character  of  pilgrims.' 

*  Having  passed  within  these  sacred  walls,  the  attention  is  first 
directed  to  a  large  flat  stone  in  the  floor,  a  little  within  the  door ;  it 
is  surrounded  by  a  rail,  and  several  lamps  hang  suspended  over  it. 
The  pilgrims  approach  it  on  their  knees,  touch,  and  kiss  it,  and, 
prostrating  themselves  before  it,  offer  up  their  prayers  in  holy  ad- 
oration. This  is  the  stone  on  which  the  body  of  our  Lord  was 
washed  and  anointed,  and  prepared  for  the  tomb.  Turning  to  the 
left,  and  proceeding  a  little  forward,  we  came  into  a  round  space 
immediately  under  the  dome,  surrounded  with  sixteen  large  col- 
umns that  support  the  gallery  above.  In  the  centre  of  this  space 


SKETCHES  OF  PALESTINE.  367 

stands  the  holy  sepulchre ;  it  is  enclosed  in  an  oblong  house,  round- 
ed at  one  end  with  small  arcades  or  chapels  for  prayer  in  the  ont- 
side  of  it  for  the  devotion  of  the  Copts,  the  Abyssinian,  the  Syrian 
Maronite,  and  other  Christians,  Who  are  not,  like  the  Roman  Cath- 
olics, the  Greeks,  and  the  Armenians,  provided  with  large  chapels 
in  the  body  of  the  church.  At  the  other  end  it  is  squared  off 
and  furnished  with  a  platform  in  front,  which  is  ascended  by  a 
flight  of  steps,  having  a  small  parapet  wall  of  marble  on  each  hand, 
and  being  floored  with  the  same  material.  In  the  middle  of  this 
platform  stand  a  block  of  polished  marble,  about  a  foot  and  a  half 
square  ;  on  this  stone  sat  the  angel  who  announced  the  blessed  tid- 
ings, of  the  ressureotion  to  Mary  Magdalen,  and  Joanna,  and  Mary 
the  mother  of  James :  '  He  is  not  here,  he  is  risen,  as  he  said :  come, 
see  the  place  where  the  Lord  lay.'  Advancing  a  step,  and  taking 
off  our  shoes  and  turbans,  at  the  desire  of  the  keeper,  he  drew  aside 
the  curtain,  and  stepping  down  and  bending  almost  to  the  ground, 
we  entered,  by  a  low  narrow  door  into  this  mansion  of  victory, 
where  Christ  triumphed  over  the  grave,  and  disarmed  death  of  all 
his  terrors. 

'The  tomb  exhibited  is  a  sarcophagus  of  white  marble,  slightly 
tinged  with  blue ;  it  is  six  feet  one  inch  and  three  quarters  long, 
three  feet  three  quarters  of  an  inch  broad,  and  two  feet  one  inch  and 
a  quarter  deep,  measured  on  the  outside.  It  is  but  indifferently 
polished,  and  seems  as  if  it  had  at  one  time  been  exposed  to  the 
pelting  of  the  storm  and  the  changes  of  the  season,  by  which  it  lias 
been  considerably  disintegrated :  it  is  without  any  ornament,  and  is 
made  in  the  fashion  of  a  Greek  sarcophagus,  and  not  like  the  an- 
cient tombs  of  the  Jews,  which  we  see  cut  in  the  rock  for  the  re- 
ception of  the  dead  ;  nor  like  those  stone  troughs,  or  sarcophagi, 
which  I  have  already  mentioned  were  called  to  me  the  beds  of  the 
Lord  Jesus,  of  Mary,  of  John,  and  of  Zacharias.  There  are  seven 
silver  lamps  constantly  burning  over  it,  the  gifts  of  different  poten- 
tates, to  illuminate  this  scene  of  hope  and  joy.  The  sarcophagus 
occupies  about  one  half  of  the  sepulchral  chamber,  and  extends 
from  one  end  of  it  to  the  other.  A  space  about  three  feet  width  in 
front  of  it,  is  all  that  remains  for  the  reception  of  visiters,  so  that  not 
above  three  or  four  can  be  conveniently  admitted  at  a  time.' 

That  the  marble  sarcophagus  shown  as  the  sepulchre,  has  no  pre- 
tensions to  the  distinction  claimed  for  it,  stands  in  no  need  of  proo£ 
The  Evangelists  inform  us  that  the  sepulchre  in  which  the  body  of 
Jesus  was  laid,  was  hewn  out  of  the  rock,  which  is  not  marble,  but 
compact  limestone ;  a  lateral  excavation,  in  all  probability,  of  the 
same  kind  as  are  still  seen  in  the  rocks  round  Jerusalem.  The 
stone  in  the  anti-room  of  the  tomb,  shown  as  that  which  was  rolled 
to  the  doorway  of  the  sepulchre,  and  kissed  and  venerated  by  the 
holy  fathers  accordingly,  was  admitted  by  the  guide,  when  strictly 
questioned,  to  be  a  substitute  for  the  real  stone,  which  was  stolen 
by  the  Armenians,  and  is  exhibited  by  them  in  a  chapel  on  Mount 
Zion:  but  the  block  of  marble,  it  was  said,  served  their  purpose 


368  SKETCHES  OF  PALESTINE. 

equally  well.  Dr.  Richardson  conjectures  that,  were  the  historians 
of  the  sacred  premises  to  exercise  the  same  degree  of  candor  as 
their  guide,  it  would  turn  out  that  the  stone  trough  called  the  Sereer 
Sidn  Aisa  by  the  Turks,  was  the  sarcophagus  originally  exhibited 
as  the  tomb  of  Christ. 

The  walls  of  the  sepulchral  chamber  itself  are  of  greenish  ir.arble, 
the  species  of  breccia  vulgarly  called  verd-antique.  It  is  pretend' 
ed  that  this  exterior  is  only  a  casing  to  protect  the  internal  surface 
of  the  rock,  which  externally  has  been  cut  into  the  shape,  to  use 
Dr.  Clark's  expression,  of  a  huge  pepper-box;  all  the  surrounding 
rock  being  levelled  to  the  floor  of  the  building,  except  this  *  grotto 
above  ground,'  as  Maundrell  terms  it.  Thus,  all  that  the  pilgrim  is 
permitted  to  see,  is  a  marble  casing  of  a  supposed  rock,  which  rock 
has,  in  fact,  all  the  appearance  of  a  building,  as  no  doubt  it  really  is. 

From  the  sepulchre,  the  visiter  is  led  to  the  place  where  Christ 
appeared  to  Mary  Magdalen  ;  to  the  *  chapel  of  apparition,'  where 
he  appeared  to  the  Virgin  ;  and  then  to  the  Greek  chape!  facing  the 
sepulchre,  in  the  centre  of  which  the  Greeks  have  set  up  a  globe,  to 
mark  out  the  spot  as  the  centre  of  the  earth  ;  thus  transferring,  as 
Dr.  Richardson  remarks,  the  absurd  notions  of  their  ancient  hea- 
then priests  respecting  the  navel  of  the  earth,  from  Delphi  to  Jeru- 
salem. A  dark,  narrow  stair-case  of  about  twenty  steps  conducts 
the  pilgrim  to  Mount  Calvary.  Here  are  shown  the  place  where 
Christ  was  nailed  to  the  cross,  where  the  cross  was  erected,  the 
hole  in  which  the  end  was  fixed,  and  the  rent  in  the  rock,  all  cov- 
ered with  marble,  perforated  in  the  proper  places.  *  To  complete,' 
says  Dr.  Clarke,  *  the  naivete  of  the  tale,  it  is  added,  that  the  head  of 
Adam  was  found  within  the  fissure.'  '  Mount  Calcary '  is,  by  that 
learned  traveller,  stated  to  be  in  fact  a  modern  piece  of  masonry  ;  a 
sort  of  altar,  within  the  contracted  dimensions  of  which  are  exhib- 
ited the  marks  or  holes  of  the  three  crosses,  without  the  smallest  re- 
gard to  the  space  necessary  for  their  erection. 

Descending  from  Calvary,  the  pilgrim  enters  the  chapel  of  St. 
Helena,  in  the  low  rocky  vault  beneath  which  the  cross  is  said  to 
have  been  found.  In  this  murky  den,  the  invention  (or  finding) 
of  the  cross  is  celebrated,in  an  appropriate  mass  by  the  Latins  on4tho 
3d  of  May.  It  is  large  enoughio  contain  about  thirty  or  forty  per- 
sons, wedged  in  close  array,  and  on  that  occasion  it  is  generally 
crowded.  The  year  that  Dr.  Richardson  was  at  Jerusalem,  it  hap- 
pened that  the  day  on  which  the  festival  was  to  be  celebrated  by 
the  Latins,  was  the  same  as  that  on  which  it  was  to  be  celebrated 
by  the  Greeks  ;  and  he  witnessed  the  tug  of  war  between  the  ec- 
clesiastical combatants,  who,  with  brick-bats  and  clubs,  teeth  and 
nails,  fought  for  their  chapel  like  kites  or  crows  for  their  nest.  The 
Romans  were  routed.  « The  devil  aids  the  Greeks,'  exclaimed  the 
superior  of  the  Latin  Convent,  panting  from  the  effects  of  a  blow ; 
1  they  are  schismatics  ;  and  you  Englishmen,  who  live  in  our  con- 
vent, see  us  beaten  and  do  not  assist  us.'  '  How  can  you  expect  it,' 
it  was  rejoined, '  when,  if  we  fell  in  your  cause,  you  would  not  al- 


SKETCHES  OF  PALESTINE.  369 

low  us  Christian  burial?'  The  Greeks  spent  the  night  in  firing 
pistols  and  rejoicing ;  and  were  fined  by  the  cadi  next  morning  for 
disturbing  his  repose. 

The  fathers  of  the  Latin  convent  annually  perform  the  cruci- 
fixion. Maundrell,  who  was  present  on  one  occasion,  has  given  a 
particular  description  of  the  dramatic  ceremonies. 

It  is  impossible  to  calculate  the  extent  of  the  evil  resulting  from 
this  pernicious  mummery,  in  its  two-fold  character  of  a  delusion 
on  the  minds  of  the  pilgrims,  and  a  stumbling-block  in  the  way  of 
tho  conversion  of  the  Mahommedans.  in  the  year  1820,  upwards 
of  3000  pilgrims  visited  the  Holy  City.  They  consisted  of  Greeks 
from  Russia,  Turkey,  and  Asia  Minor, — Armenians,  chiefly  from 
Anatolia, — Copts,  Syrians,  and  about  fifty  Roman  Catholics  from 
Damascus.  Very  few  of  them  were  able  to  read,  and  scarcely  one 
had  seen  a  copy  of  the  Scriptures.  The  true  character  of  their 
religion  may  be  "judged  of  from  the  fact  that  the  chief  objects  of 
the  Greek  pilgrims  are,  to  obtain  candles  touched  with  the  sacred 
fire,  under  the  idea  that,  if  burned  at  a  person's  funeral,  they  will 
assuredly  save  his  soul  from  punishment ;  and  to  bathe  themselves, 
and  dip  their  linen  in  the  Jordan,  bringing  these  clothes  back  to  be 
carefully  preserved  for  their  winding-sheet.  'If  this  be  not  hea- 
thenism,' it  has  been  remarked,  'what  is  Christianity?'  Every 
friend  of  his  species  must  devoutly  wish  that  all  the  murky  dens 
and  grottoes  of  superstition,  which  profane  and  infest  the  once 
sacred  city,  were  laid  open  to  the  day,  and  the  whole  system  of 
scandalous  imposture  finally  abolished. 

The  only  genuine  objects  of  interest  in  the  Church  of  the  Sepul- 
chre were  the  tombs  of  Godfrey  of  Bouillon  and  his  brother 
Baldwin  :  they  are  described  by  Chateaubriand  as  two  stone  coffins, 
supported  by  four  little  pillars,  with  Latin  epitaphs  in  Gothic  char- 
acter. They  had  nothing  to  recommend  them  but  their  antiquity. 
Mr.  Buckingham  states,  that  they  have  been  spitefully  destroyed  by 
ihe  Greeks,  so  that  not  a  vestige  of  them  remains. 

The  reader  must  have  had  more  than  enough  of  the  suppbsiti- 
tious  sacred  places,  and  it  cannot  be  necessary  to  particularize  the 
absurd  legions  which  affect  to  point  out  the  precise  spot  on  which 
every  circumstance  in  the  evangelical  narrative  occurred,  down  to 
the  window  out  of  which  Dives  looked  upon  Lazarus,  and  the 
place  where  Peter's  cock  crew.  Whatever  objects  of  antiquarian 
interest  Jerusalem  may  yet  contain,  remain  to  be  brought  to  light 
by  excavation,  which,  under  present  circumstances,  is  impractica- 
ble. By  far  the  most  interesting  objects  within  the  city  are 

THE  JEWS. 

The  Jews  reside  chiefly  on  the  edge  of  Mount  Zion,  and  in  the 
lower  part  of  the  city,  near  the  shambles,  which,  in  summer,  are 
dreadfully  offensive.  Here,  again,  we  shall  avail  ourselves  of  the 
account  given  of  the  present  condition  of  the  Jews  of  Jerusalem 


370  SKETCHES  OF  PALESTINE. 

by  Dr.  Richardson.     He  reports  their  number  to  be  10,000 ;  an 
amazing  increase,  if  correct,  within  the  past  thirty  years. 

Many  of  the  Jews  are  rich  and  in  comfortable  circumstances; 
and  possess  a  good  deal  of  property  in  Jerusalem ;  but  they  are 
careful  to  conceal  their  wealth,  and  even  their  comfort,  from  the 
jealous  eye  of  their  rulers,  lest,  by  awakening  their  cupidity,  some 
vile,  indefensible  plot  should  be  devised  to  their  prejudice.  In 
going  to  visit  a  respectable  Jew  in  the  holy  city,  it  is  a  common 
thing  to  pass  to  his  house  over  a  ruined  foreground  and  up  an 
awkward  outside  stair,  constructed  of  rough  unpolished  stones,  that 
totter  under  the  foot ;  but  it  improves  as  you  ascend,  and  at  the 
top  has  a  respectable  appearance,  as  it  ends  in  an  agreeable  plat- 
form in  front  of  the  house.  On  entering  the  house  itself,  it  ia 
found  to  be  clean  and  well  furnished  ;  the  sofas  are  covered  with 
Persian  carpets,  and  the  people  seem  happy  to  receive  you.  The 
visiter  is  entertained  with  coffee  and  tobacco,  as  is  the  custom  in 
the  houses  of  the  Turks  and  Christians.  The  ladies  presented 
themselves  with  an  ease  and  address  that  surprised  me,  and  called 
to  my  memory  the  pleasing  society  of  Europe.  This  difference  of 
manner  arises  from  many  of  the  Jewish  Yamilies  in  Jerusalem 
having  resided  in  Spain  or  Portugal,  when  the  females  had  rid 
themselves  of  the  cruel  domestic  fetters  of  the  East,  and,  on  return- 
ing to  their  beloved  land,  had  very  properly  maintained  their  justly 
acquired  freedom  and  rank  in  society.  They  almost  all  speak  a 
broken  Italian,  so  that  conversation  goes  on  without  the  clumsy 
aid  of  an  interpreter. 

'It  was  the  feast  of  the  Passover,  and  they  were  all  eating 
unleavened  bread ;  some  of  which  was  presented  to  me  as  a  curi- 
osity, and  I  partook  of  it  merely  that  I  might  have  the  gratification 
of  eating  unleavened  bread,  with  the  sons  and  daughters  of  Jacob, 
in  Jerusalem ;  it  is  very  insipid  fare,  and  no  one  would  eat  it  from 
choice.  For  the  same  reason  I  went  to  the  synagogue,  of  which 
there  are  two  in  Jerusalem,  although  I  visited  only  one.  The 
form  of  worship  is  the  same  as  in  this  country,  and  I  believe  in 
every  country  which  the  Jews  inhabit.  The  females  have  a  sepa- 
rate part  of  the  synagogue  assigned  to  them,  as  in  the  synagogues 
in  Europe,  and  in  the  Christian  churches  all  over  the  Levant. 
They  are  not  however,  expected  to  be  frequent  or  regular  in  their 
attendance  on  public  worship.  The  ladies  generally  make  a  point 
of  going  on  the  Sunday,  that  is  the  Friday  night  or  Saturday 
morning,  after  they  are  married  ;  and  being  thus  introduced  in 
their  new  capacity,  once  a  year  is  considered  as  sufficient  compli- 
ance, on  their  part,  with  the  ancient  injunction  to  assemble  thenv 
selves  together  in  the  house  of  prayer.  Like  the  votaries  of  some 
Christian  establishments,  the  Jewesses  trust  more  to  the  prayers  of 
their  priests  than  to  their  own. 

'The  synagogues  in  Jerusalem  are  both  poor  and  small,  not 
owing  to  the  poverty  of  their  possessors,  but  to  the  prudential 
motives  above  mentioned.' 


SKETCHES  OF  PALESTINE.  371 

'The  Jewesses  in  Jerusalem  speak  in  a  decided  and  firm  tone, 
unlike  the  hesitating  and  timid  voice  of  the  Arab  and  Turkish 
females ;  and  claim  the  European  privilege  of  differing  from  their 
husbands,  and  maintaining  their  own  opinions.  They  are  fair  and 
good  looking;  red  and  auburn  hair  are  by  no  means  uncommon  in 
either  of  the  sexes,  I  never  saw  any  of  them  with  veils  ;  and  was 
informed  that  it  is  the  general  practice  of  the  Jewesses  in  Jerusa- 
lem to  go  with  their  faces  uncovered :  they  are  the  only  females 
there  who  do  so. 

'In  passing  up  the  synagogue,  I  was  particularly  struck  with  the 
mean  and  wretched  appearance  of  the  houses  on  both  sides  of  the 
streets  as  well  as  with  the  poverty  of  their  inhabitants.  Some  of 
the  old  men  and  old  women  had  more  withered  and  hungry 
aspects  than  any  of  our  race  1  ever  saw,  with  the  exception  of  the 
caverned  dames  at  Gornou,  in  Egyptian  Thebes,  who  might  have 
sat  in  a  stony  field  as  a  picture  of  famine  the  year  after  the  flood. 
The  sight  of  a  poor  Jew  in  Jerusalem  has  in  it  something  pecu- 
liarly affecting.  The  heart  of  this  wonderful  people,  in  whatever 
clime  they  roam,  still  turns  to  it  as  the  city  of  their  promised  rest. 
They  take  pleasure  in  her  ruins,  and  would  lick  the  very  dust  for 
her  sake.  Jerusalem  is  the  centre  around  which  the  exiled  sons  of 
Judah  build,  in  airy  dreams,  the  mansions  of  their  future  greatness. 
In  whatever  part  of  the  world  he  may  live,  the  heart's  desire  of  a 
Jew,  when  gathered  to  his  fathers,  is  to  be  buried  in  Jerusalem. 
Thither  they  return  from  Spain  and  Portugal,  from  Egypt  and 
Barbary,  and  other  countries  among  which  they  have  been  scat- 
tered ;  and  when,  after  all  their  longings,  and  all  their  struggles  up 
the  steeps  of  life,  we  see  them  poor,  and  blind,  and  naked  in  the 
streets  of  their  once  happy  Zion,  he  must  have  a  cold  heart  that 
can  remain  untouched  by  their  sufferings,  without  uttering  a 
prayer  that  the  light  of  a  reconciled  countenance  would  shine  on 
the  darkness  of  Judah,  and  the  day-star  of  Bethlehem  arise  in 
their  hearts. 

1  The  Jews  are  the  best  cicerones  in  Jerusalem,  because  they 
generally  give  the  ancient  names  of  places,  which  the  guides  and 
interpreters  belonging  to  the  different  convents  do  not.  They  are 
not  forward  in  presenting  themselves,  and  must  generally  be 
sought  for.' 

BEAD  AND  RELIC  TRADE. — In  Jerusalem,  there  is  scarcely  any 
trade,  and  but  few  manufactures ;  the  only  flourishing  one  is  that 
of  crucifixes,  chaplets,  beads,  shells  and  relics,  of  which  whole  car- 
goes are  shipped  from  Jaffa,  for  Italy,  Spain,  and  Portugal.  The 
shells  are  of  the  kind  called  mother-of-pearl,  ingeniously 
though  coarsely  sculptured  into  various  shapes.  Those  of  the  larg- 
est size,  and  the  most  perfect,  are  formed  into  clasps  for  the  zones 
of  the  Greek  women.  Such  clasps  are  worn  by  the  ladies  of  Cy- 
prus, Crete,  Rhodes,  and  other  islands  of  the  Archipelago.  All 
these,  after  being  purchased,  are  taken  to  the  church  of  St.  Sepul- 
chre, where  they  undergo  the  process  of  benediction  or  conseera- 


372  SKETCHES  OF  PALESTINE. 

tion,  and  are  then  fit  for  use.  In  like  manner,  beads  and  crosses 
purchased  at  Loretto,  are  placed  in  a  wooden  bowl  belonging  to 
the  house  of  the  Virgin,  to  be  consecrated  for  the  purpose  of  being 
worn  as  amulets.  The  beads  are  manufactured  either  from  date 
stones,  or  from  a  very  hard  kind  of  wood  called  Mecca  fruit ;  when 
first  wrought,  it  appears  of  the  color  of  box ;  it  is  then  dyed  yel- 
low, black,  or  red.  They  are  of  various  sizes;  the  smaller  are  the 
most  esteemed,  on  account  of  the  greater  number  used  to  fill  a  string ; 
and  rosaiies  sell  at  higher  prices  when  they  have  been  long  worn, 
because  the  beads  acquire  a  polish  by  friction.  Strings  of  beads  are 
in  request  equally  among  the  Moslems  and  the  Christians.  The 
custom  of  carrying  them  appears  to  have  been  in  use  long  before 
the  Christian  era,  and  still  prevails  in  the  East.  This  is  but  one 
instance  among  many,  of  the  Heathen  origin  of  the  Romish  cus- 
toms. The  shell  worn  as  a  badge  by  pilgrims,  had  probably  a  sim- 
ilar origin  :  it  was  an  ancient  symbol  of  Astarte,  the  Syrian  Venus. 
Rosaries  and  amulets  are  made  also  of  the  black  fetid  lime-stone  of 
the  Dead  Sea,  to  be  worn  as  a  charm  against  the  plague.  Amulets 
of  the  same  mineral  substance  have  been  found  in  the  chambers 
below  the  pyramids  of  Sakhara,  in  Upper  Egypt;  the  effluvia  is 
owing  to  the  presence  of  Sulphuretted  hydrogen.  The  Armenians 
and  the  Jews  are  the  chief  traders  in  these  sacred  wares. 

MOUNT  SIGN.  The  Armenian  convent,  with  its  church  and  gar- 
dens, occupies  the  whole  of  that  part  of  Mount  Sion  which  is  now 
within  the  walls;  the  greater  part  is  now  excluded  from  the  city; 
and  for  the  best  description  of  this  interesting  site,  we  must  avail 
onrselves  of  Dr.  Richardson's  Travels. 

*  Passing  out  by  Zion's  gate,  or  as  it  is  more  frequently  denomin- 
ated, the  gate  of  David,  the  first  object  that  meets  the  eye  of  the 
traveller,  is  a  long,  dingy  looking  Turkish  mosque,  situated  on  the 
middle  of  Mount  Zion.  It  is  called  the  mosque  of  the  prophet 
David,  and  is  said  to  be  built  over  his  tomb,  which  is  still  exhibited 
in  the  interior,  and  is  held  in  the  greatest  possible  veneration  by  the 
Mussulmans.  The  Sautones,  belonging  to  the  mosque  in  Mount 
Zion,  are  the  most  powerful  in  Jerusalem.  Part  of  this  building 
was  anciently  the  church  of  the  Coenaculum,  where  our  Saviour 
ate  the  last  supper  with  his  disciples ;  and  I  was  shewn  into  an  up- 
per room  in  the  front  of  the  building,  which  both  the  Santon  and 
the  Ciceroni  affirmed  to  be  the  identical  room  in  which  this  memo- 
rable event  to  which  the  Christian  world  owes  the  institution  of  the 
Holy  Sacrament  of  the  Supper  took  place,  I  should  probably  have 
believed  them,  had  I  not  learnt  from  higher  authority,  that  thirty- 
nine  years  thereafter,  not  only  the  walls,  but  every  house  in  Jeru- 
salem, had  been  rased  from  its  foundation,  and  the  ground  plough- 
ed up  by  the  Roman  soldiers,  in  order  that  they  might  discover  the 
treasures  which  they  supposed  the  unfortunate  Jews  had  hidden 
under  their  feet. 

'  To  the  right  of  the  mosque,  and  between  it  and  the  gate  of  the 
city,  there  is  a  small  Armenian  chapel,  built  on  the  spot  where  for- 


SKETCHES  OF  PALESTINE.  373 

merly  stood  the  palace  of  Caiaphas.  It  is  remarkable  for  nothing 
but  that  the  stone  which  closed  up  the  door  of  the  holy  sepulchre 
is  built  in  an  altar  at  the  upper  end  of  it,  and  exposed  in  several  pla- 
ces to  be  kissed  and  caressed,  like  other  precious  relics.  It  is  an  un- 
polished block  of  compact  lime-stone,  the  same  with  the  rock  on 
which  the  city  stands,  and  does  nor,  like  the  block  of  polished  mar- 
ble in  present  use,  carry  in  its  face  the  refutation  of  its  once  having 
served  the  office  assigned  to  it,  though  I  confess  there  is  almost  as 
little  probability  that  it  ever  did. 

A  few  paces  to  the  west  of  the  chapel,  there  is  a  Christian  bury- 
ing ground ;  and  among  the  lettered  tomb-stones  are  several  inscrib- 
ed in  the  language  of  our  own  country.  They  record  the  names 
and  cover  the  ashes  of  Englishmen,  who  are  reported  to  have  met 
their  deaths  in  a  way  not  very  creditable  to  the  Franciscan  convent. 
A  little  to  the  south  of  this  is  shown  the  place  where  the  Virgin 
Mary  expired  ;  and  on  the  north  side  of  the  gate  is  shown — what? 
the  place  where  the  cock  crew  to  Peter. 

'  Such  is  the  sum  total  of  the  information  which  the  traveller  re- 
ceives from  his  guide  respecting  the  topography  of  this  interesting 
spot,  Mount  Zion.  At  the  time  when  1  visited  this  sacred  ground, 
one  part  of  it  supported  a  crop  of  barley,  another  was  undergoing 
the  labor  of  the  plough,  and  the  soil  turned  up  consisted  of  stone 
and  lime  mixed  with  earth,  such  as  is  usually  met  with  in  the  foun- 
dations of  ruined  cities.  It  isneaily  a  mile  in  circumference,  is  high- 
est on  the  west  side,  and  towards  the  east,  falls  down  in  broad  ter- 
races on  the  upper  part  of  the  mountain,  and  narrow  ones  on  the 
side,  as  it  slopes  down  towards  the  brook  Kedron.  Each  terrace 
is  divided  from  the  one  above  it  by  a  low  wall  of  dry  stone, 
built  of  the  ruins  of  this  celebrated  spot.  The  terraces  near  the 
bottom  of  the  hill  are  still  used  as  gardens,  arid  are  watered  from 
the  pool  of  Siloam.  They  belong  chiefly  to  the  inhabitants  of  the 
small  village  of  Siloa,  immediately  opposite.  We  have  here  another 
remarkable  instance  of  the  special  fulfilment  of  prophecy :  'There- 
fore shall  Zion  for  your  sakes  be  ploughed  as  a  field,  and  Jerusa- 
lem shall  become  heaps.' — Micah  iii.  12. 

'  Mount  Zion  is  considerably  higher  than  the  ground  on  the 
north,  on  which  the  ancient  city  stood,  or  that  on  the  east  leading 
on  to  the  valley  of  Jehoshaphat,  but  has  very  little  relative  height 
above  the  ground  on  the  south  and  on  the  west,  and  must  have 
owed  its  boasted  strength  principally  to  a  deep  ravine,  by  which  it 
is  encompassed  on  the  east,  south,  and  west,  and  the  strong  high 
walls  and  towers  by  which  it  was  enclosed  and  flanked  completely 
round.  This  ravine,  or  valley,  as  the  term  has  been  rendered, 
though  the  word  trench  or  ditch  would  have  conveyed  a  more  cor- 
rect idea  of  its  appearance,  seems  to  have  been  formed,  by  art  on 
the  south  and  on  the  west,  the  surface  of  the  ground  on  each  side 
being  nearly  of  equal  height,  though  Mount  Zion  is  certainly  the 
highest,  yet  so  little  so  that  it  could  not  have  derived  much  addi- 
tional strength  from  its  elevation.  The  breadth  of  this  ditch  is 
33 


374  SKETCHES  OF  PALESTINE. 

stated  by  Sfrabo,  to  be  about  150  feet,  and  its  depth,  or  the  height 
of  Mount  Zion  above  the  bottom  of  the  ravine,  to  be  about  sixty 
feet.  The  measurement,  in  both  instances,  is  nearly  correct,  and 
furnishes  one  among  many  proofs  that  we  derive  from  other  sources, 
fhat  the  places  now  called  by  these  names  are  the  same  as  those 
that  were  anciently  so  denominated.  The  bottom  of  this  ravine  is 
rock,  covered  with  a  thin  sprinkling  of  earth,  and,  in  the  winter 
season,  is  the  natural  channel  for  conveying  off  the  water  that  falls 
into  it  from  the  higher  ground  ;  but,  on  both  sides,  the  rock  is  cut 
perpendicularly  down,  and  most  probably  it  was  the  quarry  from 
which  the  greater  part  of  the  stones  were  taken  for  building  the  ci- 
ty. The  precipitous  edge  of  the  ravine  is  more  covered  with  earth 
on  the  side  of  Mount  Zion  than  on  the  other  side,  which  is  proba- 
bly owing  to  the  barbarous  custom  of  razing  cities  from  their  foun- 
dations, and  tumbling  both  earth  and  stone  into  the  ditch  below. 
The  loose  stones  have  been  all  removed  from  it  for  building  the 
present  city.  This  ravine  extends  further  north  than  the  present 
wall  of  the  city,  and  ends  in  a  gradual  slope  of  deep  earth,  so  as  to 
countenance  the  opinion  that  it  once  extended  further  than  it  does 
now.' 

The  Mount  of  Olives  forms  part  of  a  ridge  of  lime-stone  hills, 
extending  to  the  north  and  the  south-west.     Pococke  describes  it 
has  having  ibur  summits.     On  the  lowest  and  most  northerly  of 
these,  which,  he  tells  us,  is  called  Sulman  Tashy,  the  stone  of  Solo- 
mon, there  is  a  large  domed  sepulchre,  and  several  other  Moham- 
medan tombs.     The  ascent  to  this  point,  which  is  to  the  north-east 
of  the  city,  he  describes  as  very  gradual,  through  pleasant  corn- 
fields planted  with  olive  trees.    The  second  summit  is  that  which 
overlooks  the  city  :  the  path  to  it  rises  from  the  ruined  gardens  of 
Gethsernane,  which  occupy  part  of  the  valley.     About  halfway  up 
the  ascent  is  a  ruined  monastery,  built  as  the  monks  tell  us,  on  the 
spot  where  our  Saviour  wept  over  Jerusalem.    From  this  point, 
the  spectator  enjoys,  perhaps,  the  best  view  of  the  Holy  City.     On 
reaching  the  summit,  an  extensive  view  is  obtained  towards  the 
east,  embracing  the  fertile  plain  of  Jericho,  watered  by  the  Jordan, 
and  the  Dead  Sea,  enclosed  by  mountains  of  considerable  grandeur. 
Here  there  is  a  small  village,  surrounded  by  some  tolerable  corn- 
Jand.     This  summit  is  not  relatively  high,  and  would  more  proper- 
ly be  termed  a  hill,  than  a  mountain  ;  it  is  not  above  two  miles  dis- 
tant from  Jerusalem.    At  a  short  distance  from  the  summit  is 
shown  the  supposed  print  of  our  Savionr's/e/2foot — Chateaubriand 
says  the  mark  of  the  right  was  once  visible,  and  Bernard  de  Brei- 
denbach,  saw  it  in  1483 — this  is  the  spot  fixed  upon  by  the  mother 
of  Constantine,  as  that  from  which  our  Lord  ascended,  and  over 
which  she  accordingly  erected  a  church  and  monastery,  the  ruins 
of  which  still  remain.    Pococke  describes  the  building  which  was 
standing  in  his  time,  as  a  small  Gothic  chapel,  round  within,  and 
octagonj*witLouf,  and  tells  us  that  it  was  converted  into  a  mosque. 
The  Turks,  ior  a  stipulated  sum,  permit  the  Christian  pilgrims  to 


SKETCHES  OF  PALESTINE.  375 

take  an  impression  of  the  foot- print  in  wax  or  plaster,  to  carry 
home.  'Twice,' says  Dr.  Richardson,  'I  visited  this  memorable 
spot,  and  each  time  it  was  crowded  with  devout  pilgrims,  taking 
casts  of  the  holy  vestige.  They  had  to  purchase  permission  of  the 
Turks;  but,  had  it  not  been  in  the  possession  of  the  Turks,  they 
would  have  had  to  purchase  it  from  the  more  mercenary  and  not 
less  merciless  Romans  or  Greeks,'  On  Ascension  eve,  the  Chris- 
tians come  and  encamp  in  the  court,  and  that  night  they  '•perform 
the  offices  of  the  Ascension.'  Here,  however,  as  with  regard  to 
Calvary,  and  almost  all  the  supposed  sacred  places,  superstition  has 
blindly  followed  the  blind.  That  this  isnot  the  place  of  the  Ascen- 
sion, is  certain  from  the  words  of  St.  Luke,  who  says  that  our  Lord 
led  out  his  disciples  *  as  far  as  Bethany,  and  lifted  up  his  hands, 
and  blessed  them.  And  it  came  to  pass,  while  he  blessed  them, 
he  was  parted  from  them,  and  carried  up  to  heaven.'  (Acts  i.) 

Bethany  is  a  small  village  to  the  east  of  the  Mount  of  Olives,  on 
the  road  to  Jericho,  not  further  from  Jerusalem  than  the  pinnacle  of 
the  hill.  There  are  two  roads  to  it ;  one  passes  over  the  Mount  of 
Olives ;  the  other,  which  is  the  shorter  and  easier,  winds  round  the 
eastern  end,  having  the  greater  part  of  the  hill  on  the  north  or  left 
hand,  and  on  the  right  the  elevation  called  by  some  writers  the 
Mount  of  Offence,  which  is,  however,  very  little  above  the  level  of 
the  valley  of  Jehoshaphat.  The  village  of  Bethany  is  small  and 
poor,  and  the  cultivation  of  the  soil  is  much  neglected  ;  but  it  is  a 
pleasant  and  somewhat  romantic  spot,  sheltered  by  Mount  Olivet 
on  the  north,  and  abounding  with  trees  and  long  grass.  The  in- 
habitants are  Arabs.  Here  they  show  the  ruins  of  a  sort  of  castle 
as  the  house  of  Lazarus,  and  a  grotto  as  his  tomb,  which,  of  course 
is  much  frequented  by  pilgrims.  On  the  eminence  above  is  a  small 
Turkish  mosque.  The  house  of  Simon  the  leper,  of  Mary  Mag- 
dalene, and  of  Martha,  who,  it  seems,  did  not  reside  with  her 
brother,  and  the  identical  fig-tree  which  our  Lord  cursed,  are 
among  the  monkish  curiosities  of  the  place. 

The  third  summit  of  the  hill  is  further  towards  the  south.  Here 
Pococke  noticed  two  heaps  of  ruins,  one  of  which,  the  Arabs  told 
him,  had  been  a  convent  of  Armenians.  The  fourth  summit,  still 
further  south,  had  also  an  Armenian  convent :  it  was  called,  he 
says,  by  the  Arabs,  Gorek-Nertebet. 

Dr.  Clarke  has  described  some  subterranean  chambers  on  the 
highest  summit  of  Mount  Olivet,  which  are  not  noticed  by  any 
preceding  traveller.  One  of  them,  he  says,  has  the  shape  of  a  cone 
of  immense  size,  the  vertex  alone  appearing  level  with  the  soil,  and 
exhibiting  a  small  circular  aperture  like  the  mouth  of  a  well ;  the 
sides  extending  below  to  a  great  depth.  These  were  lined  with  a 
hard,  red  stucco,  like  the  substance  covering  the  walls  of  the  sub- 
terranean galleries  in  the  Isle  of  Aboukir.  Dr.  Clarke  calls  this 
place  a  crypt  and  a  subterranean  pyramid,  and  supposes  it  may 
Slave  been  appropriated  to  the  idolatrous  worship  of  Ashtaroth  at 


376  SKETCHES  OF  PALESTINE. 

an  early  period  of  the  Jewish  history,  and  subsequently  mads  a  re- 
ceptacle for  the  bones  of  men. 

The  valley  of  Jehoshaphat,  which  lies  between  this  mountain 
and  the  hills  on  which  Jerusalem  is  built,  is  still  used  as  a  burial- 
place  by  the  modern  Jews,  as  it  was  by  their  ancestors.  It  is,  gen- 
erally speaking,  a  rocky  flat,  with  a  few  patches  of  earth  here  and 
there,  about  half  a  mile  in  breadth  from  the  Kedron  to  the  foot  of 
Mount  Olivet,  and  nearly  of  the  same  length  from  Siloa  to  the  gar- 
den of  Gethsemane.  It  is  filled  with  tombs  everywhere  dug  in  the 
rock,  some  of  them  large,  indicating  the  superior  condition  of  their 
ancient  possessors,  but  the  greater  part  are  small  and  of  the  ordina- 
ry size.  Many  of  the  stones  are  covered  with  Hebrew  inscriptions  ; 
and,  to  the  learned  in  Rabbinical  lore,  this  ancient  grave -yard  would 
furnish  an  interesting  field  for  investigation.  The  Jews  have  a 
tradition,  evidently  founded  on  taking  literally  the  passage,  Joel  iii. 
]2,  that  this  narrow  valley  will  be  the  scene  of  the  final  judgment. 
The  prophet  Jeremiah  evidently  refers  to  the  same  valley  under 
the  name  of  the  valley  of  the  son  of  Hinnom,  or  the  valley  of  To- 
phet,  the  situation  being  clearly  marked  as  being  by  the  entry  of 
the  east  gate. 

BETHLEHEM. 

From  the  scene  of  our  Lord's  crucifixion  and  ascension,  the  pil- 
grim proceeds  to  visit  the  place  of  his  nativity.  There  arc  two 
roads  from  Jerusalem  to  Bethlehem.  That  which  is  used  at  pres- 
ent is  the  shortest ;  the  old  road  is  more  to  the  west.  Passing  out 
of  the  Jaffa  gate,  the  traveller  turns  to  the  left,  and,  descending  the 
sloping  bank  into  the  ravine,  leaves  on  his  right  the  pool  of  Heze- 
kiah ;  he  then  ascends  the  rocky  flat  on  the  other  side,  and  pro- 
ceeds in  a  south-west  direction,  over  rocky  and  barren  ground,  ex- 
hibiting, in  a  few  cultivated  patches,  some  scanty  crops  of  grain, 
and  in  other  parts,  a  covering  of  grass  and  wild  flowers.  The  first 
part  of  the  road  possesses  little  interest.  The  ruined  town  of  Sim- 
eon, the  Greek  monastery  of  Elias,  and  the  tomb  of  Rachel,  are 
pointed  out  by  the  guides :  the  last  is  a  Turkish  oratory,  with  a 
rounded  top,  like  the  whitened  sepulchre  of  an  Arab  sheikh,  and 
the  Turks  are  said  to  have  a  superstitious  regard  for  the  spot  as  a 
burial-place.  Dr.  Clarke  describes  the  first  view  of  Bethlehem  as 
imposing.  The  town  appears  covering  the  ridge  of  a  hill  on  the 
southern  side  of  a  deep  and  extensive  valley,  and  reaching  from 
east  to  west.  The  most  conspicuous  object  is  the  monastery  erect- 
ed over  the  supposed  '  Cave  of  the  Nativity ; '  its  walls  and  battle* 
ments  have  the  air  of  a  large  fortress.  From  this  same  point,  the 
Dead  Sea  is  seen  below  on  the  left,  seemingly  very  near, « but,* 
says  Sandys,  '  not  so  found  by  the  traveller ;  for  these  high,  declin- 
ing mountains  are  not  to  be  directly  descended.'  The  road  winds 
round  the  top  of  a  valley  which  tradition  has  fixed  on  as  the  scene 
of  the  angelic  vision  which  announced  the  birth  of  our  Lord  to  the 


SKETCHES  OF  PALESTINE.  377 

Shepherds  ;  but  different  spots  have  been  selected,  the  Romish  au- 
thorities not  being  agreed  on  this  head. 

The  village  of  Bethlehem  contains  about  300  inhabitants,  the 
greater  part  of  whom  gain  their  livelihood  by  making  beads,  carv- 
ing mother-of-pearl  shells  with  sacred  subjects,  and  manufacturing 
small  tables  and  crucifixes,  all  which  are  eagerly  purchased  by  the 
pilgrims.  The  monks  of  Bethlehem  claim  also  the  exclusive  priv- 
ilege of  marking  the  limbs  and  bodies  of  the  devotees  with  crosses, 
stars,  and  monograms,  by  means  of  gunpowder;  a  practice 
borrowed  from  the  customs  of  heathenism,  and  noticed  by  Virgil 
and  Pornponius  Mela.  Pococke  says:  ' It  is  remarkable  that  the 
Christians  at  Jerusalem,  Bethlehem,  St.  John's  and  Nazareth,  are 
worse  than  any  other  Christians.  I  was  informed  that  the  women 
of  Bethlehem  are  very  good;  whereas  those  at  Jerusalem  are 
worse  than  the  men,  who  are  generally  better  there  than  at  the 
other  places.' 

At  about  an  hour's  distance  to  the  south  of  Bethlehem,  are  the 
pools  of  Solomon.  They  are  three  in  number,  of  an  oblong  figure, 
and  are  supported  by  abutments.  The  antiquity  of  their  appear- 
ance entitles  them,  Dr.  Richardson  thinks,  to  be  considered  as  the 
work  of  the  Jewish  monarch  :  *  like  everything  Jewish,'  he  says, 
4  they  are  more  remarkable  for  strength  than  for  beauty.'  They 
are  situated  at  the  south  end  of  a  small  valley,  and  are  so  disposed 
on  the  sloping  ground,  that  the  waters  of  the  uppermost  may 
descend  into  the  second,  and  those  of  the  second  into  the  third. 
That  on  the  west  is  nearest  the  source  of  the  spring,  and  is  about 
480  feet  long  ;  the  second  is  about  600  feet  in  length,  arid  the  third 
about  660;  the  breadth  of  all  three  being  nearly  the  same,  about 
'270  feet.  They  are  lined  with  a  thick  coat  of  plaster,  and  are 
capable  of  containing  a  great  quantity  of  water,  which  they  dis- 
charge into  a  small  aqueduct  that  conveys  it  to  Jerusalem.  This 
aqueduct  is  built  on  a  foundation  of  stone :  the  water  runs  through 
round  earthen  pipes,  about  ten  inches  in  diameter,  which  are 
cased  with  two  stones,  hewn  out  so  as  to  fit  them,  and  they  are 
covered  over  with  rough  stones,  well  cemented  together.  The 
whole  is  so  much  sunk  into  the  ground  on  the  side  of  the  hills 
round  which  it  is  carved,  that  in  many  places  nothing  is  to  be  seen 
of  it.  In  time  of  war,  however,  this  aqueduct  could  be  of  no  ser- 
vice to  Jerusalem,  as  the  communication  could  be  easily  cut  off". 
The  fountain  which  supplies  these  pools,  is  at  about  the  distance 
of  140  paces  from  them. 

THE  DEAD  SEA. 

This  celebrated  lake,  which  the  prevailing  passion  for  the  mar- 
vellous long  invested  with  imaginary  horrors,  and  of  which  the 
natives  themselves  still  speak  with  a  degree  of  terror,  has  received 
different  names  expressive  of  its  character  and  origin.  In  Scrip- 
ture, it  is  called  the  Sea  of  the  Plain,  the  Salt  Sea,  nnd  the  East 
33* 


378  SKETCHES  OF  PALESTINE. 

Sea.  By  Josephus,  and  the  Greek  and  Roman  writers,  it  is  spokeft 
of  under  the  appellation  of  Lake  Asphaltites,  that  is,  the  Bitumin- 
ous Lake.  St.  Jerome  styles  it  the  Dead  Sea,  because,  according 
to  the  tradition,  nothing  could  live  in  it.  The  Arabs  call  it  El 
Amout  (the  dead),  and  Bohr  Louth,  or  the  Sea  of  Lot;  and  the 
Turks,  according  to  Chateaubriand,  Ula  Deguisi.  It  is  a  lake 
lying  between  two  ranges  of  mountains,  which  enclose  it  on  the 
east  and  the  west ;  on  the  north  it  receives  the  Jordan  from  the 
plain  of  Jericho  ;  while,  on  the  south,  it  is  equally  open,  and  yet  it 
has  no  outlet  for  its  waters.  Reland,  Pococke,  and  other  travellers, 
have  supposed  that  it  must  throw  off  its  superfluous  waters  by 
some  subterraneous  channel ;  but,  although  it  has  been  calculated 
that  the  Jordan  daily  discharges  into  it  6,090,000  tons  of  water, 
besides  what  it  receives  from  the  Arnon  and  several  smaller 
streams,  it  is  now  known,  that  the  loss  by  evaporation  is  adequate 
to  explain  the  absorption  of  the  waters.  Its  occasional  rise  and 
fall  at  certain  seasons,  is  doubtless  owing  to  the  greater  or  less 
volume  which  the  Jordan  and  the  other  streams  bring  down  from 
the  mountains. 

The  Jordan,  at  its  embouchure,  is  deep  and  rapid,  rolling  a  vol- 
ume of  waters  from  two  to  three  hundred  feet  in  width,  with  a  cur- 
rent so  violent,  that  an  expert  swimmer,  who  attended  Mr.  Jolliffe, 
found  it  impracticable  to  cross  it.  Dr.  Shaw  describes  it,  indeed, 
as  not  more  than  thirty  yards  broad,  and  Maundrell,  as  only  about 
twenty  yards  over ;  but  they  speak  of  its  appearance  at  some  dis- 
tance from  the  mouth,  where  the  pilgrims  bathe.  The  former  af- 
firms that  it  runs  about  two  miles  an  hour, — while  the  latter  speaks 
of  its  violent  and  turbid  current,  *  too  rapid  to  be  swam  against.' 
It  was  the  old  opinion,  that  the  waters  of  the  river  passed  through 
the  lake  without  mingling  with  it ;  and  '  I  thought  I  saw,'  says  Po- 
cocke, '  the  stream  of  a  different  color.'  The  fact  is,  that  the  water 
of  the  lake  is  clear  and  of  the  color  of  the  sea,  while  that  of  the  Jor- 
dan is  muddy,  and  of  course  discolors  the  lake  with  its  yellow  cur- 
rent. 

The  specific  gravity  of  the  waters  of  the  Dead  Sea  is  supposed  to 
have  been  much  exaggerated  by  the  ancient  writers,  but  their  state- 
ments are  now  proved  to  be  by  no  means  very  wide  of  the  truth. 
Pliny  says,  that  no  living  bodies  would  sink  in  it;  and  Strabo,  that 
persons  who  went  into  it  were  borne  up  to  their  middle.  Josephus 
states,  that  Vespasian  tried  the  experiment,  by  ordering  some  per- 
sons who  could  not  swim,  to  be  thrown  into  the  water  with  their 
hands  tied  behind  them,  and  that  they  all  floated,  as  if  impelled  up- 
wards by  a  subterranean  current.  Maundrell  says;  «  Being  willing 
to  make  au  experiment  of  its  strength,  I  went  into  it,  and  found  it 
bore  up  my  body  in  swimming  with  an  uncommon  force.  But  as 
for  that  relation  of  some  authors,  that  men  wading  into  it  were 
buoyed  up  to  the  top  as  soon  as  they  go  as  deep  as  the  navel,  I 
found  it  by  experiment  not  true.' 

The  question  of  its  specific  gravity,  has  been  set  to  rest  by  the 


SKETCHES  OF  PALESTINE.  379 

chemical  analysis  of  the  waters  made  by  Dr.  Marcet,  and  publish- 
ed in  the  London  Philosophical  Transactions  for  1807.  In  1778, 
Messrs.  Lavoisier,  Macquer,  and  Le  Sage  had  concluded,  by  experi- 
ment, that  a  hundred  pounds  of  the  water  contain  forty -live  pounds 
six  ounces  of  salt ;  that  is,  six  pounds  four  ounces  of  common  ma- 
rine salt,  and  thirty-eight  ounces  of  marine  salt  with  an  earthly 
base.  But  Dr.  Marcet's  more  accurate  analysis  has  determined  the 
specific  gravity  to  be  1,211,  (that  of  fresh  water  being  1000,)  a  de- 
gree of  density  not  to  be  met  with  in  any  other  natural  water ;  and 
it  holds  in  solution  the  following  salts,  in  the  stated  proportions  to 
100  grains  of  the  water: 

Muriate  of  lime  3,920  grains. 

Muriate  of  magnesia  10,246 

Muriate  of  soda  10,360 
Sulphate  of  lime  0,054 

24,580 

So  that  the  water  of  the  lake  contains  about  one-fourth  of  its  weight 
of  salts,  supposed  in  a  state  of  perfect  desiccation ;  or  if  they  be 
desiccated  at  the  temperature  of  180°  on  Fahrenheit's  scale,  they 
will  amount  to  forty -one  per  cent,  of  the  water.  Its  other  general 
properties  are,  that,  1.  As  stated  by  all  travellers,  it  is  perfectly 
transparent.  2.  Its  taste  is  extremely  bitter,  saline,  and  pungent. 
3.  Re-agents  demonstrate  in  it  the  presence  of  the  marine  and  sul- 
phuric acids.  4.  It  contains  no  alumine.  5.  It  is  not  saturated 
with  common  salt.  6.  It  did  not  change  the  colors  of  the  infusions 
commonly  used  to  ascertain  the  prevalence  of  an  acid  or  an  alkali, 
such  as  litmus,  violet  and  tumeric. 

The  water  of  the  Jordan,  when  analysed,  exhibited  results  strik- 
ingly dissimilar.  It  is  soft,  has  no  saline  taste,  and  500  grains  evap- 
orated at  200°,  left  0.8  grains  of  dry  residue :  that  is,  only  1-300  part 
of  the  proportion  of  solid  matter  that  is  contained  in  the  water  of 
the  lake.  Carbonate  of  lime  was  detected  in  the  water  of  the  river, 
of  which  there  is  no  trace  in  the  salt  water  ;  and  two  other  precipi- 
tates were  produced,  one  of  them  magnesian.  It  is  impossible  to 
account  for  this  remarkable  difference,  on  any  other  principle  than 
that  which  refers  the  origin  of  the  lake  to  the  convulsion  recorded 
in  the  Scripture  narrative. 

The  Scriptural  account  is  explicit,  that '  the  Lord  rained  upon 
Sodom  and  upon  Gomorrah  brimstone  and  fire  from  heaven  ;'  v/hich 
vre  may  safely  interpret  as  implying  a  shower  of  inflamed  sulphur, 
or  nitre.  At  the  same  time  it  is  evident,  that  the  whole  plain  un- 
derwent a  simultaneous  convulsion,  which  seem  referrible  to  the 
consequences  of  a  bituminous  explosion.  In  perfect  accordance 
with  this  view  of  the  catastrophe,  we  find  the  very  materials,  as  it 
were,  of  this  awful  visitation  still  at  hand  in  the  neighboring  hills; 
from  which  they  might  have  been  poured  by  the  agency  of  a  thun- 


380  SKETCHES  OF  PALESTINE. 

der-storra,  without  excluding  a  supernatural  cause  from  the  expla- 
nation of  the  phenomena.  Captains  Irby  and  Mangles  collected, 
on  the  southern  coast,  lumps  of  nitre  and  fine  sulphur,  from  the  size 
of  a  nutmeg  up  to  that  of  a  small  hen's  egg,  which,  it  was  evident 
from  their  situation,  had  been  brought  down  by  the  rain  :  « their 
great  deposit  must  be  sought  for,'  they  say, '  in  the  cliff'.' 

In  the  plain  bordering  upon  the  lake  are  high  rushes,  which  give 
way  to  a  variety  of  bushes  and  wild  plants ;  among  others,  several 
species  of  acacia,  the  dwarf  mimosa,  the  tamarisk,  the  wild  cotton 
plant,  the  doom,  and  the  oschar.  Captain  Mangles  describes  also 
a  very  curious  tree,  which  abounds  here ;  its  fruit  resembling  the 
currant  in  its  growth,  but  with  the  color  of  a  plum  ;  having  a 
strong  aromatic  taste  resembling  mustard,  and,  if  taken  in  any 
quantity,  producing  the  same  irritability  in  the  nose  and  eyes.  The 
leaves  have  the  same  pungent  flavor  in  a  less  degree.  On  the 
borders  of  the  Derrah,  they  observed  another  peculiar  shrub,  its 
branches  inclining  downwards,  of  a  dull  green,  with  little  or  no 
foliage ;  the  fruit  about  the  size  of  an  almond  in  its  green  husk, 
and  not  very  dissimilar  in  color,  but  seamed  or  ribbed.  When 
ripe,  it  becomes  soft  and  juicy,  like  a  green  gage,  but  the  skin 
retains  its  roughness.  It  contains  a  stone.  The  taste  has  a  sort  of 
sweetness,  mixed  with  a  strong  bitter ;  the  smell  is  sickly  and  dis- 
agreeable. It  is  said  by  the  natives  to  be  poisonous,  children 
being  reported  to  have  frequently  been  disordered,  and  even  to 
have  died,  after  eating  it. 

It  was  long  a  received  tradition,  that  no  living  thing  could  pass 
over  this  lake  without  being  suffocated  by  the  vapors,  and  that  no 
fish  could  endure  the  deadly  waters.  Captains  Irby  and  Mangles 
found  on  the  shores  a  great  number  of  dead  locusts,  which  might 
almost  seem,  they  remark,  to  lend  some  countenance  to  the  tale, 
were  it  not  a  spectacle  sufficiently  common  upon  other  shores,  as 
about  El  Arisen,  and  in  Sicily.  These,  however,  had  not  become 
putrid,  nor  had  they  any  smell,  as  when  cast  up  by  any  other  sea, 
being  completely  penetrated  and  encrusted  with  salt;  and  they 
had  lost  their  color.  Of  the  fabulous  nature  of  one  part  of  the 
tradition,  the  travellers  had  ocular  demonstration ;  first,  in  a  pair 
of  Egyptian  geese,  and  afterwards  in  a  flight  of  pigeons  which 
passed  over  the  sea.  And  Maundrell  saw  several  birds,  he  does 
not  say  of  what  species,  flying  about  and  over  the  sea,  without  any 
visible  harm.  The  latter  part  also  of  the  report,  he  adds, 1 1  have 
some  reason  to  suspect  as  false  ;  having  observed  among  the  peb- 
bles on  the  shore  two  or  three  shells  of  fish,  resembling  oyster- 
shells.  These  were  cast  up  by  the  waves,  at  two  hours'  distance 
from  the  mouth  of  the  Jordan ;  which  1  mention,  lest  it  should  be 
suspected  that  they  might  be  brought  into  the  sea  that  way.' 


SKETCHES  OF  PALESTINE.  381 


LAKE  OF  TIBERIAS. 

This  inland  sea,  or  more  properly  lake,  which  derives  its  several 
names,  the  Lake  of  Tiberias,  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  and  the  Lake  of 
Gennesareth,  from  the  territory  which  forms  its  western  and  south- 
western border,  is  computed  to  he  between  seventeen  and  eighteen 
miles  in  length,  and  from  five  to  six  in  breadth.     The  mountains 
on  the  east  come  close  to  its  shore,  and  the  country  on  that  side 
has  not  a  very  agreeable  aspect :  on  the  west,  it  has  the  plain  of 
Tiberias,  the  high  ground  of  the  plain  of  Hutin,  or  Hottein,  the 
plain  of  Gennesareth,  and  the  foot  of  those  hills  by  which  you 
ascend  to  the  high  mountain  of  Saphet.    To  the  north  and  south 
it  has  a  plain  country,  or  valley.    There  is  a  current  throughout 
the  whole  breadth  of  the  lake,  even  to  the  shore ;  and  the  passage 
of  the  Jordan  through  it  is  discernible  by  the  smoothness  of  the 
surface  in  that  part.     Various  travellers  have  given  a  very  different 
account  of  its  general  aspect.     According  to  Captain  Mangles,  the 
land  about  it  has  no  striking  features,  and  the  scenery  is  altogether 
devoid  of  character.     '  It  appeared,'  he  says, '  to  particular  disad- 
vantage to  us  after  those  beautiful  lakes  we  had  seen  in  Switzer- 
land ;  but  it  becomes  a  very  interesting  object,  when  you  consider 
the  frequent  allusions  to  it  in  the  Gospel  narrative.'     Dr.  Clarke, 
on  the  contrary,  speaks  of  the  uncommon  grandeur  of  this  memo- 
rable scenery.     '  The  Lake  of  Gennesareth,'  he  says,  'is  surround- 
ed by  objects  well  calculated  to  heighten  the  solemn  impression  ' 
made  by  such  recollections,  and  '  affords  one  of  the  most  striking 
prospects  in  the  Holy  Land.     Speaking  of  it  comparatively,  it  may 
be  described  as  longer  and  finer  than  any  of  our  Cumberland  and 
Westmoreland  lakes,  although  perhaps  inferior  to  Loch  Lomond. 
It  does  not  possess  the  vastness  of  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  although 
it  much  resembles  it  in  certain  points  of  view.     In  picturesque 
beauty,  it  comes  nearest  to  the  Lake  of  Locarno  in  Italy,  although 
it   is  destitute  of  anything  similar  to  the  islands  by  which   that 
majestic  piece  of  water  is  adorned.    It  is  inferior  in  magnitude, 
and  the   height  of  its  surrounding  mountains,  to  the   Lake  of 
Asphaltites.'     Mr.  Buckingham  may  perhaps  be  considered  as  hav- 
ing given  the  most  accurate  account,  and  one  which  reconciles  in 
some  degree  the  differing  statements  above  cited,  when,  speaking 
of  the  lake  as  seen  from  Tel  Hoom,  he  says — that  its  appearance  is 
grand,  but  that  the  barren  aspect  of  the  mountains  on  each  side, 
and  the  total  absence  of  wood,  give  a  cast  of  dulness  to  the  picture; 
this  is  increased  to  melancholy  by  the  dead  calm  of  its  waters,  and 
the  silence  which  reigns  throughout  its  whole  extent,  where  not  a 
boat  or  vessel  of  any  kind  is  to  be  found. 

There  were  fleets  of  some  force  on  this  lake  during  the  wars  of 
the  Jews  with  the  Romans,  and  very  bloody  battles  were  fought  be- 
tween them.  Josephus  gives  a  particular  account  of  a  naval  en* 
gagement  between  the  Romans  under  Vespasian,  and  the  Jews  who 


382  SKETCHES  OF  PALESTINE. 

had  revolted  during  the  administration  of  Agrippa  Titus  and  Tra- 
jan were  both  present,  and  Vespasian  himself  was  on  board  the  Ro- 
man fleet.  The  rebel  force  consisted  of  an  immense  multitude, 
who,  as  fugitives  after  the  capture  of  Tarichsea  by  Titus,  had  sought 
refuge  on  the  water.  The  vessels  in  which  the  Romans  defeated 
them,  were  built  for  the  occasion,  and  yet  were  larger  than  the  Jew- 
ish ships.  The  victory  was  followed  by  so  terrible  a  slaughter  of 
the  Jews,  that  nothing  was  to  be  seen,  either  on  the  lake  or  its 
shores,  but  the  blood  and  mangled  corses  of  the  slain,  and  the  air 
was  infected  by  the  number  of  dead  bodies.  Six  thousand  five 
hundred  persons  are  stated  to  have  perished  in  this  naval  engage- 
ment and  in  the  battle  of  Tarichaea,  besides  twelve  hundred  who 
were  afterwards  massacred  in  cold,  blood  by  order  of  Vespasian,  in 
the  amphitheatre  at  Tiberias,  and  a  vast  number  who  were  given  to 
Agrippa  as  slaves. 

Of  the  numerous  towns  which  formerly  flourished  on  the  shores 
of  this  lake,  few  traces  now  remain,  and  there  is  some  difficulty  in 
determining  even  the  sites  of  those  whose  names  have  come  down 
to  us.  About  an  hour  and  a  qnarter  to  the  northward  of  Tiberias, 
following  the  course  of  the  lake,  is  a  small  Mahoinmedan  village 
called  Migdal,  (which  signifies  in  Hebrew  a  tower,)  where  there  are 
considerable  remains  of  a  very  indifferent  castle,  that  may  possibly 
have  given  its  name  to  the  place.  It  is  seated  near  the  edge  of  the 
lake,  beneath  a  range  of  high  cliffs,  in  which  are  seen  small  grot- 
toes or  caves.  The  rums  consist  of  an  old  square  tower  and  some 
larger  buildings  of  rude  construction,  apparently  ancient.  It  is 
generally  supposed  that  this  is  the  Magdala  of  the  Gospels,  and  the 
Migdal  of  the  earlier  Scriptures. 

THE  VALE  OF  NAZARETH. 

The  delightful  vale  of  Nazareth  is  described  as  a  circular  basin 
encompassed  by  mountains.  '  It  seems,'  says  Dr.  Richardson, '  as 
if  fifteen  mountains  met  to  form  an  enclosure  for  this  delightful 
spot:  they  rise  round  it  like  the  edge  of  a  shell  to  guard  it  from  in- 
trusion. It  is  a  rich  and  beautiful  field  in  the  midst  of  barren 
mountains :  it  abounds  in  fig-trees,  small  gardens,  and  hedges  of 
the  prickly  pear;  and  the  dense,  rich  grass  affords  an  abundant  pas- 
ture. The  village  stands  on  an  elevated  situation,  on  the  west  side 
of  the  valley.  The  convent  stands  at  the  east  end  of  the  village, 
on  the  high  ground,  just  where  the  rocky  surface  joins  the  valley. 

Nassara,  or  Naszera,  is  one  of  the  principal  towns  in  the  pashalic 
of  Acre.  Its  inhabitants  are  industrious,  because  they  are  treated 
with  less  severity  than  those  of  the  country-towns  in  general.  The 
population  is  estimated  at  3000,  of  whom  500  are  Turks ;  the  re- 
mainder are  Christians.  There  are  about  ninety  Latin  families,  ac- 
cording to  Burckhardt ;  but  Mr.  Connor  reports  the  Greeks  to  be 
the  most  numerous:  there  is,  besides,  a  congregation  of  Greek 
Catholics,  and  another  of  Maronites.  The  Latin  convent  is  a  very 


SKETCHES  OF  PALESTINE.  383 

spacious  and  commodious  building,  which  was  thoroughly  repair- 
ed and  considerably  enlarged  in  1730.    The  remains  of  the  more 
ancient  edifice,  ascribed  to  the  mother  of  Constantine,  may  be  ob- 
served in  the  form  of  subverted  columns,  with  fragments  of  capitals 
and  bases  of  pillars,  lying  near  the  modern  building.     Pococke 
noticed,  over  a  door,  an  old  alto-relief  of  Judith  cutting  off  the  head 
of  Holofernes.    Within  the  convent  is  the  Church  of  the  Annun- 
ciation, containing  the  house  of  Joseph  and  Mary,  the  length  of 
which  is  not  quite  the  breadth  of  the  church,  but  it  forms  the  prin- 
cipal part  of  it.     The  columns  and  all  the  interior  of  the  church  are 
hung  round  with  darnask  silk,  which  gives  it  a  warm  and  rich  ap- 
pearance.   Behind  the  great  aliar,  is  a  subterranean  cavern,  divided 
into  small  grottoes,  where  the  Virgin  is  said  to  have  lived.    Her 
kitchen,  parlor,  and  bed-room  are  shown,  and  also  a  narrow  hole 
in  the  rock,  in  which  the  child  Jesus  once  hid  himself  from  his 
persecutors.    The  pilgrims  who  visit  these  holy  spots,  are  in  the 
habit  of  knocking  oft' small  pieces  of  stone  from  the  walls,  which 
are  thus  considerably  enlarging.    In  the  church  a  miracle  is  still 
exhibited  to  the  faithful.     In  front  of  the  altar  are  two  granite  col- 
umns, each  two  feet  one  inch  in  .diameter,  and  about  three  feet 
apart.     They  are  supposed  to  occupy  the  very  places  where  the 
angel  and  the  Virgin  stood  at  the  precise  moment  of  the  annunci- 
ation.   The  innermost  of  these,  that  of  the  Virgin,  has  been  broken 
away,  some  say  by  the  Turks,  in  expectation  of  fin  ding  treasure  un- 
der it ;  'so  that,'  as  Mauudrell  states,  'eighteen  inches'  length  of  it 
is  clean  gone  between  the  pillar  and  the  pedestal.'    Nevertheless  it 
remains  erect,  suspended  from  the  roof;  as  if  attracted  by  a  load- 
etone.    It  has  evidently  no  support  below  ;  and,  though  it  touchts 
the  roof,  the  hierophant  protests  that  it  has  none  above.     'All  tho 
Christiana  of  Nazareth,'  says  Burckhardt,  'with  the  friars  of  course 
at  their  head,  affect  to  believe  in  this  miracle,  though  it  is  perfectly 
evident  that  the  upper  part  of  the  columns  is  connected  with  the 
roof.'    'The  fact  is,'  says  Dr.  Clarke, '  that  the  capital  and  a  piece 
of  a  shaft  of  a  pillar  of  grey  granite  have  been  fastened  on  to  the 
roof  of  the  cave ;  and  so  clumsily  is  the  rest  of  the  hocus  pocus  con- 
trived, that  what  is  shown  for  the  lower  fragment  of  the  same  pillar 
resting  upon  the  earth,  is  not  of  the  same  substance,  but  of  Cipolino 
marble.     About  this  pillar,  a  different  story  has  been  related  by  al- 
most every  traveller  since  the  trick  was  devised.     Mauudrell  and 
Egmont  and  Heyman  were  told,  that  it  was  broken,  in  search  of 
hidden  treasure,  by  a  pasha  who  was  struck  with  blindness  for  his 
impiety.     We  were  assured  that  it  separated  in  this  maimer,  when 
the  angel  announced  to  the  Virgin  the  tidings  of  her  conception. 
The  monks  had  placed  a  rail,  to  prevent  persons  infected  with  the 
plague  from  coming  to  rub  against  these  pillars ;  this  had  been  for 
many  years  their  constant  practice,  whenever  afflicted  with  any 
sickness.    The  reputation  of  the  broken  pillar,  for  healing  every 
kind  of  disease,  prevails  all  over  Galilee.' 

Burckhardt  says,  that  this  church,  next  to  that  of  the  Holy  Sep- 


384  SKETCHES  OF  PALESTINE. 

ulchre,  is  the  finest  in  Syria,  and  contains  two  tolerable  good  or- 
gans. Within  the  walls  of  the  convent  are  two  gardens,  and  a 
small  burying-ground :  the  walls  are  very  thick,  and  serve  occa- 
sionally as  a  fortress  to  all  the  Christians  in  the  town.  There  are 
at  present  eleven  friars  in  the  convent ;  they  are  chiefly  Spaniards. 
The  yearly  expenses  of  the  establishment  are  stated  to  amount 
to  upwards  of  900/.,  a  small  part  of  which  is  defrayed  by  the  rent  of 
a  few  houses  in  the  town,  and  by  the  produce  of  some  acres  of 
corn-land  :  the  rest  is  remitted  from  Jerusalem.  The  whole  annu- 
al expenses  of  the  Terra  Santa  con  vents  are  about  15,OOOJ.,  of  which 
the  Pasha  of  Damascus  receives  about  I2,000/.  The  Greek  con- 
vent of  Jerusalem,  according  to  JBurckhardt's  authority,  pays  much 
more,  as  well  to  maintain  its  own  privileges,  as  with  a  view  to  en- 
croach upon  those  of  the  Latins. 

MOUNT  TABOR. 

Mount  Tabor,  having  been  pitched  upon  as  the  scene  of  the 
Transfiguration,  ranks  among  the  sacred  places  to  which  pilgrims 
repair  from  Nazareth.  It  is  minutely  described  by  both  Pococks 
and  Maundrell. 

The  road  from  Nazareth  lies  for  two  hours  between  low  hills ;  it 
then  opens  into  the  Plain  of  Esdraelon.  At  about  two  or  three 
furlongs  within  the  plain,  and  six  miles  from  Nazareth,  rises  this 
singular  mount,  which  is  almost  entirely  insulated,  its  figure  repre- 
senting a  half-sphere.'  '  It  is,'  says  Pococke, '  one  of  the  finest  hills 
I  ever  beheld,  being  a  rich  soil  that  produces  excellent  herbage, 
and  is  most  beautifully  adorned  with  groves  and  clumps  of  trees. 
The  ascent  is  so  easy,  that  we  rode  up  the  north  side  by  a  winding 
road.  Some  authors  mention  it  as  near  four  miles  high,  others  as 
about  two  :  the  latter  may  be  true,  as  to  the  winding  ascent  up  the 
hill.  The  top  of  it,  which  is  about  half  a  mile  long,  and  near  a 
quarter  of  a  mile  broad,  is  encompassed  with  a  wall,  which  Jose- 
phus  built  in  forty  days :  there  was  also  a  wall  along  the  middle  of 
it,  which  divided  the  south  part,  on  which  the  city  stood,  from  the 
north  part,  which  is  lower,  and  is  called  the  meidan,  or  place,  being 
probably  used  for  exercises  when  there  was  a  city  here,  which 
Josephus  mentions  by  the  name  of  Ataburion.  Within  the  outer 
wall  on  the  north  side,  are  several  deep  fosses,  out  of  which,  it  is 
probable,  the  stones  were  dug  to  build  the  walls;  and  these  losses 
seem  to  have  answered  the  end  of  cisterns,  to  preserve  the  rain- 
water, and  were  also  some  defence  to  the  city.  There  are  like- 
wise a  great  number  of  cisterns  under  ground,  for  preserving  the 
rain-water.  To  the  south,  where  the  ascent  was  most  easy,  there 
are  fosses  cut  on  the  outside,  to  render  the  access  to  the  walls  more 
difficult.  Some  of  the  gates  also  of  the  city  remain :  as  the  gate 
of  the  winds,  to  the  west ;  and  the  arched  gate,  a  small  one  to  the 
south.  Antiochus,  King  of  Syria,  took  the  fortress  on  the  top  of 
his  hill.  Vespasian  also  got  possession  of  it ;  and  after  that,  Jose- 


SKETCHES  OF  PALESTINE.  385 

]>hus  fortified  it  with  strong  walls.  But  what  has  made  it  more 
famous  than  any  thing  else,  is  the  common  opinion,  from  the  time 
of  St.  Jerome,  that  the  transfiguration  of  our  Saviour  was  on  this 
mountain.  On  the  east  part  of  the  hill  are  the  remains  of  a  strong 
castle  ;  and  within  the  precinct  of  it  is  the  grot,  in  which  are  three 
altars  in  memory  of  the  three  tabernacles  which  St.  Peter  propos- 
ed to  build,  and  where  the  Latin  fathers  always  celebrate  on  the 
day  of  the  Transfiguration.  It  is  said,  there  was  a  magnificent 
church  built  here  by  St.  Helena,  which  was  a  cathedral  when  this 
town  was  made  a  bishop's  see.  There  was  formerly  a  convent  of 
Benedictine  monks  here ;  and,  on  another  part  of  the  hill,  a 
monastery  of  Basilians,  where  the  Greeks  have  an  altar,  and  per- 
form their  service  on  the  festival  of  the  Transfiguration.  On  the 
side  of  the  hill,  they  show  a  church  in  a  grot,  where  they  say 
Christ  charged  his  disciples  not  to  tell  what  things  they  had  seen 
till  he  was  glorified.' 

ROUTE  TO  NABLOUS  AND  TIBERIAS. 

For  some  hours  after  leaving  Jerusalem,  the  route  to  the  north 
lies  over  a  rugged  and  mountainous  country,  which,  though  sus- 
ceptible of  cultivation  by  being  terraced,  now  presents  an  aspect  of 
frightful  nakedness  and  sterility.  The  road,  if  it  may  be  called 
such,  is  rough  and  stony  ;  and  no  object  of  interest  occurs  before 
the  traveller  arrives  at  Beer,  which  is  three  hours  and  a  half  (about 
ten  miles)  from  Jerusalem.  The  name  of  the  place  is  derived 
from  its  well,  which  Bar  signifies.  It  seems,  Dr.  Richardson  says, 
to  have  been  once  a  place  of  considerable  consequence;  and 
Maundrell  supposed  it  to  be  the  Beer  referred  to,  Judges  ix.  21,  to 
which  Jothurn  fled  from  the  revenge  of  Abimelech.  'It  is  suppos- 
ed also,'  he  adds,  'to  be  the  same  with  Michrna&h,  1  Sam.  xiv.  5.' 
But  Reland,  on  the  authority  of  Eusebitis,  places  Michmas  near 
Jerusalem,  in  the  direction  of  Rama.  Close  to  the  well,  which  is 
at  the  bottom  of  the  declivity  on  which  stands  the  village,  are  the 
mouldering  walls  of  a.  ruined  khan ;  and  on  the  summit  of  the  hill, 
two  large  arches  still  remain  of  a  ruined  convent — Maundrell  calls 
it  an  old  church,  and  says  it  was  built  by  the  empress  Helena,  in 
commemoration  of  the  Virgin's  coming  as  far  as  this  spot  in  quest 
of  the  child  Jesus,  as  related  Luke  x.  24 !  A  little  beyond  Beer 
two  roads  meet:  that  on  the  right  conducts  to  Nablous.  'After 
two  hours'  travelling  along  the  same  rocky  path,'  says  Dr.  Richard- 
son, '  we  passed  the  village  of  Einbroot,  which  is  finely  situated  on 
our  left,  on  the  top  of  a  hill.  The  adjoining  valley  is  well  cultivat- 
ed, and  the  sides  of  the  hills  are  raised  in  terraces,*aud  planted  with 
the  olive,  the  vine,  and  the  fig-tree.  On  approaching  Einbroot, 
the  guide  of  the  caravan  called  out  for  us  to  march  in  close  order. 
Here  it  was  reported  that  we  were  in  danger  of  being  attacked  by 
banditti,  and  that  the  muskets  were  seen  pointed  at  us  over  the 
stones ;  but  upon  the  guide,  who  rode  considerably  in  advance, 


386  SKETCHES  OF  PALESTINE. 

informing  them  who  the  party  were  whom  they  meant  to  attack^, 
that  they  travelled  under  the  protection  of  a  firman  from  the  Porte 
and  the  pasha  of  Acre,  and,  what  was,  perhaps,  as  powerful  a  dis- 
suasive, that  we  were  armed,  and  could  fight  as  well  as  they  could, 
they  withdrew  their  weapons  of  offence,  and  remained  quiet.  A 
little  further  on  we  passed  two  villages  on  our  left,  the  names  of 
which  I  did  not  learn.  The  road  lay  partly  through  a  rocky  dell, 
and  partly  through  a  narrow  cultivated  valley ;  but  the  general 
aspect  of  the  country  was  particularly  wild  and  barren.  The  next 
village  that  we  passed  was  called  Engeeb,  also  on  the  top  of  a  hill 
on  the  left,  and  the  adjoining  ground  was  well  cultivated  in  the 
same  manner.  After  this,  we  passed  a  fine  looking  picturesque 
hill,  every  way  susceptible  of  cultivation,  at  the  foot  of  which  we 
entered  the  small  valley  of  Khan  Leban,  where  we  found  the 
ruins  of  an  old  khan,  with  many  mouldering  vaults,  and  a  plentiful 
spring  of  clear  water,  much  infested  with  small  worms.  It  derives 
its  name  from  a  village  called  Leban,  at  the  other  end  of  the  valley. 
It  is  eight  hours  from  Jerusalem.  Here  we  pitched  our  tents  for 
the  night,  the  place  being  agreeable  and  convenient,  with  plenty  of 
grass  for  the  animals. 

Maundrell  describes  this  spot  as  *  a  delicious  vale,'  and  says,  that 
either  Khan  Leban,  which  is  on  the  eastern  side,  or  the  village 
which  is  on  the  opposite  side,  is  supposed  to  be  the  site  of  the 
ancient  Lebonah.  He  notices  also  a  village  called  Cinga,  lying 
at  some  distance  on  the  traveller's  left,  about  three  quarters 
of  an  hour  south  of  Khan  Leban ;  and,  between  this  and 
Engeeb,  he  describes  a  very  narrow  valley  between  two  high 
rocky  hills,  where  he  found  the  ruins  of  a  village  and  a  'monastery, 
supposed  to  mark  the  site  of  the  ancient  Bethel,  which  was  on  the 
confines  of  Ephraim  and  Benjamin.  The  monastery  is  almost 
sufficient  to  awake  the  suspicion  that  this  was  not  Bethel :  possibly, 
the  Arabs,  who  are  the  best  authorities,  could  decide  the  point,  as 
they  have  almost  uniformly  preserved  the  ancient  names.  But 
neither  the  empress  Helena  nor  the  monks  ever  thought  of  consult- 
ing them. 

'Having  passed  the  village  of  Leban,'  continues  Dr.  Richardson, 
'the  road,  winding  with  the  valley,  proceeds  in  a  northern  direc- 
tion. Here  the  ground  is  rich  and  well  cultivated,  and  several 
ploughs  were  busily  engaged.  We  next  passed  the  village  of 
Zanio,  and  travelling  for  a  considerable  time  over  a  mountainous 
and  barren  track,  descended  into  a  fertile  valley,  where  we  found 
the  reapers  cutting  down  an  excellent  crop  of  barley.  Here  are 
three  comfortable  looking  villages  near  each  other;  the  first  is 
named  Cousa,  the  second  Anabous,  and  the  third  Couara.  We  are 
now  about  two  hours  and  a  half  from  Nablous.  The  ground  in 
this  valley  is  remarkably  stony,  but  well  cultivated.  Having 
ascended  the  hill,  we  passed  on  our  right  the  tomb  of  the  patriarch 
Joseph,  situated  in  the  plain  below.  It  is  now  a  Turkish  oratory 
with  a  whitened  dome,  like  the  tomb  of  his  mother  Rachael  011  the 


SKETCHES  OF  PALESTINE.  387 

road  between  Jerusalem  and  Bethlehem.  At  a  little  distance,  in 
the  same  plain,  and  nearer  to  the  mountain,  probably  Gerizim,  we 
saw  another  building  resembling  the  tomb  of  an  Arab  sheikh,  and 
said  to  be  Jacob's  Well.  At  the  top  of  the  hill  we  opened  a  fine 
olive  grove,  with  a  stream  of  water  in  front  of  it.  Here  being 
anxious  to  have  a  view  of  Jacob's  Well,  we  proceeded  across  the 
field  in  that  direction,  but  had  not  advanced  far  .before  we  were 
assailed  by  prohibitory  calls  from  a  smali  fort  on  the  side  of  the 
hill;  to  which,  however,  as  we  did  not  understand  them,  we,  at 
first,  paid  no  attention ;  but  the  calls  were  speedily  followed  by  the 
discharge  of  a  musket  fired  across  our  front.  This  arrested  our 
progress,  and  drew  our  attention  to  the  place  from  which  it  came. 
Upon  this  the  calls  were  redoubled,  and  our  guide  coming  up  in- 
formed us,  that  we  were  addressed  by  the  guard  who  was  placed 
there  to  keep  the  pass,  and  that  we  could  not  proceed  to  Jacob's 
Well.  We  had  previously  been  informed  that  the  Arabs  around 
Nablous  were  in  arms  against  the  governor;  but  this  is  the  only 
specimen  of  Turkish  vigilance  that  occurred  to  us  on  the  road. 
We  saw  no  symptoms  of  rebellion  among  the  Arabs.' 

Here  again  the  question  presents  itself,  Is  this  the  well  of  the 
patriarch  whose  name  it  now  bears?  Who  gave  it  this  name,  the 
natives  or  the  Christians?  Dr.  Clarke,  who  can  be  sometimes  in- 
credulous, but  at  other  times  very  confiding,  says,  that  'this  is  allow- 
ed by  all  writers'  to  be  the  spot  referred  to,  John  iv.  6,  where  our 
Saviour  had  the  memorable  conference  with  the  Samaritan  wo- 
man* The  concurrence  of  *all  writers'  cannot  throw  the  least 
light  on;  the  fact ;  as  one  after  another  has  but  repeated  the  le- 
gend handed  down  from  the  days  of  that '  great  and  devout  patron- 
ess of  the  Holy  Land,'  as  honest  Maundrell  slyly  calls  the  empress 
Helena,  who  is  said  to  have  built  a  church  over  the  well  of  which 
4  a  few,  foundations '  were  then  remaining.  This  faithful  traveller, 
however,  notices  as  a  difficulty,  the  distance  at  which  this  well  is 
situated  from  the  modern  city.  *  If  it  should  be  questioned,'  he 
says, '  whether  this  be  the  very  well  that  it  is  pretended  for,  or  no, 
seeing  it  may  be  suspected  to  stand  too  remote  from  Sychar  for  wo- 
men to  come  so  far  to  draw  water,  it  is  answered,  that  probably  the 
€ity  extended  further  this  way  in  former  times  than  k  does  now, 
as  may  be  conjectured  from  some  pieces  of  a  very  thick  wall  still 
to  be  seen  not  far  from  hence.  These  pieces  of  wall  are  but  a  sor- 
ry voucher  for  the  suppposed  extension  of  the  city  eastward,  so  far 
beyond  the  present  walls ;  and  they  are  quite  as  likely  to  be  the 
work  of  the  said  empress.  The  simple  circumstance  of  the  dis- 
tance of  this  well  from  Sychar  (above  a  mile),  would  not,  however, 
disprove  its  identity,  were  there  no  springs  nearer  the  town,  or 
were  there  no  other  reason  for  hesitation.  But  Mr.  Buckingham 
states,  that,  on  inquiring  of  the  inhabitants  for  the  Bir  (or  Beer)  el 
Yakoab,  he  was  told  by  every  body  that  this  was  in  the  town.  As 
this  information  did  not  correspond  to  the  'described  place  of  the 
well,'  it  led  to  further  explanation ;  and,  'at  length  by  telling  the 
*tory  attached  to  it,  we  found,'  he  says,  'it  was  known  here  only  by 


388  SKETCHES  OF  PALESTINE. 

the  name  of  Beer  Samareta,  or  the  Well  of  Samaria.'  It  is  not  a  lit- 
tle singular,  that  this  traveller  should  not,  so  far  as  appears,  have 
visited  what  now  bears  the  name  of  Jacob's  Well.  That  name 
may  have  been  arbitrarily  or  ignorantly  given  to  it  by  the  Turks  j 
otherwise,  it  would  be  highly  deserving  of  attention.  It  is  plain, 
from  the  narrative  of  St.  John,  that  Jacob's  Well,  where  our  Lord 
rested  while  the  disciples  went  forward  into  the  city  to  by  meat, 
was  at  some  short  distance  from  Sychur ;  and  consequently,  the 
Beer  el  Yakoab,  if  absolutely  within  the  town,  can  hardly  be  enti- 
tled to  the  appellation.  Mr.  Buckingham  notices,  however,  a  third 
well,  *  not  far  from  the  Well  of  Samaria, '  called  the,  Beer  Yusef,  or 
Joseph's  Well,  over  which  there  is  a  modern  building ;  and  '  it  is 
said  to  be  even  at  this  day  frequented  for  water  from  Nablous.' 
The  well  of  Samaria  might,  therefore,  he  remarks,  also  have  been 
so  from  Sy char.  But  if  this  third  well  derives  its  name  from  the 
patriarch  Joseph,  to  whom  Jacob  gave  the  parcel  of  ground  con- 
taining the  place  of  sepulchre  'before  the  city,'  it  is  very  possible 
that  this  Beer  Yousef  may  be  the  well  on  which  our  Lord  sat :  it 
would  be  correctly  referred  to  as  Jacob's  Well  by  the  evangelist, 
although  it  bore  the  name  of  his  son.  It  must  be  left  to  future 
travellers  to  decide  on  the  probabilities  of  the  case.  In  the  mean 
time,  we  return  to  the  account  given  us  of  the  'Well  of  Samaria.' 
Having  procured  a  Christian  boy  for  a  guide,  Mr.  Buckingham 
left  Nablous  by  the  eastern  gate,  and  after  passing  along  the  valley 
for  about  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  he  arrived  at  the  spot  where  the 
pass  opens  into  a  more  extensive  vale,  the  mountains  on  the  other 
side  of  the  Jordan  being  in  sight  on  the  left.  Here  he  had  on  each 
side  grottoes  and  tombs,  which  we  shall  presently  notice ;  and  from 
hence,  in  another  quarter  of  an  hour,  he  reached  the  Well  of  Sa- 
maria. 'It  stands,'  he  says, '  at  the  commencement  of  the  round 
vale  which  is  thought  to  be  the  parcel  of  ground  bought  by  Jacob, 
and  which,  like  the  narrow  valley  west  of  Nablous,  is  rich  and  fer- 
tile. The  mouth  of  the  well  itself  had  an  arched  or  vaulted  build- 
ing over  it ;  and  the  only  passage  down  to  it  at  this  moment  is  by  a 
small  hole  in  the  roof,  scarcely  large  enough  for  a  moderate-sized 
person  to  work  himself  through.'  Taking  off  his  large  Turkish 
clothes,  our  traveller  descended  with  a  lighted  taper,  but  even  then 
did  not  get  down  without  bruising  himself  against  the  sides.  '  Nor 
was  I,'  he  says,  'at  all  rewarded  for  such  an  inconvenience  by  the 
sight  below.  Landing  on  a  heap  of  dirt  and  rubbish,  we  saw  a 
large,  flat,  oblong  stone,  which  lay  almost  on  its  edge  across  the 
mouth  of  the  well,  and  left  barely  space  enough  to  see  that  there 
was  an  opening  below.  We  could  not  ascertain  its  diameter,  but, 
by  the  time  of  a  stone's  descent.it  was  evident  that  it  was  of  con- 
siderable depth,  as  well  as  that  it  was  perfectly  dry  at  this  season 
(Feb.),  the  fall  of  the  stone  giving  forth  a  dead  and  hard  sound. ' 
Maundrell  removed  the  '  broad  flat  stone '  which  lay  on  the  mouth, 
and  examined  the  well  more  minutely.  '  It  is,'  he  says,  'dug  in  a 
firm  rock,  and  contains  about  three  yards  in  diameter  and  thirty- 
five  in  depth  ;  Jive  of  which  we  found  full  of  water.1  This  was  the 


SKETCHES  OF  PALESTINE.  389 

latter  end  of  March.  'This  confutes  a  story,'  he  adds,  'commonly 
told  to  travellers,  who  do  not  take  the  pains  to  examine  the  well,  viz. 
that  it  is  dry  all  the  year  round,  except  on  the  anniversary  of  that 
day  on  which  our  hlessed  Saviour  sat  upon  it,  but  then  bubbles  up 
with  abundance  of  water.'  One  would  imagine,-  that  the  '  old  stone 
vault'  built  over  the  spot  was  designed  to  protect  the  legend,  rather 
than  the  well,  by  concealing  it  from  examination.  If  this  were 
really  the  well  to  which  the  inhabitants  of  Sychar  were  accustomed 
to  resort,  it  would  be  difficult  to  account  for  its  having  been  thus 
abandoned. 

Nablous  (as  it  is  pronounced  by  the  Turks  and  Arabs,  or  Naplosa, 
as  the  Christians  who  speak  Italian  call  it — a  corruption  of  Neapo- 
lis,  or  New  Town)  is  one  of  the  few  places  in  the  Holy  Land,  the 
ancient  name  of  which  appears  to  be  superseded  by  that  which  it  has 
received  from  its  foreign  conquerors.     Its  position  identifies  the 
site,  beyond  all  question,  with  the  Shechern  of  the  Old  Testament* 
and  the  Sychar  (or  Sichem,  as  Jerome  contends  it  should  be)  of  the 
New,  the  ancient  capital  of  Samaria.    Josephus  says  that  the  na- 
tives called  it  Mabartha,  but  by  others  it  was  commonly  called 
Neapolis.     Few  places  exceed  it  in  the  romantic  beauty  of  its  po- 
sition.    It  is  situated  in  ft  narrow  valley  between  Mount  Ebal  and 
Mount  Gerizim,  having  the  former  on  the   north,  and  the  latter  on 
the  south  ;  but  it  is  correctly  described  by  Maundrell  as  lying  under 
Mount  Gerizim,  being  built  at  the  acclivity  on  the  southern  side  of 
the  valley.     It  was  from  Mount  Gerizim  that  God  commanded  the 
blessings  to  be  pronounced  upon  the  children  of  Israel,  and  from 
Mount  Ebal  the  curses,  respectively  annexed  to  obedience  and  dis- 
obedience, on  their  entering  the  promised  land  by  way  of  Jericho 
and  Ai :  half  of  the  tribes  were  to  be  encamped  over  against  the  one 
hill,  and  half  against  the  other,  f     The  modern  town  consists  of  two 
long  streets,  running  through  the  centre  of  the  valley,  and  intersect- 
ed by  several  smaller  ones,  mostly  crossing  them  at  righ!;  angles. 
At  the  present  time  it  is  populous  and  flourishing,  and  the  environs 
bear  the  marks  of  opulence  and  industry,  being  adorned  with  small 
gardens  that  skirt  the  banks  of  the  stream  by  which  the  valley  is 
watered.     '  We  passed.'  says  Dr.  Richardson, '  its  scarcely  moisten- 
ed bed,  and  a  little  above  the  town  saw  an  ancient  bridge  with 
twelve  arches,  which  were  still  capable  of  maintaining  the  com- 
munication between  the  two  sides  of  the  valley.'     Dr.  Clarke,  in 
approaching  it  from  Jennin,  was  struck  with  its  flourishing  appear- 
ance.   'There  is  nothng  in  the  Holy  Land  finer,'  he  affirms, '  than 
the  view  of  Napolose  from  the  heights  around  it.     As  the  traveller 
descends  towards  it  from  the  hills,  it  appears  luxuriantly  embosom- 
ed in  the  most  delightful  and  fragrant  bowers,  half  concealed  by  rich 
gardens,  and  by  stately  trees  collected  into  groves  all  around  the 
bold  and  beautiful  valley  in  which  it  stands.'    '  Within  the  town  are 

*  Gen.  xxxiii.  18  •,  xxxvii.  13  :  Josh.  xxiv.  32  :  Judges  ix.  f  Deut.  xi.  39  j  xxvii. 

.'13!,  13  }  Josh.  viii.  33. 

34* 


390  SKETCHES  OF  PALESTINE. 

six  mosques,  five  baths,  one  Christian  church  of  schismatic  Greeks, 
an  excellent  covered  bazar  for  fine  goods,  and  an  open  one  for  pro- 
visions, besides  numerous  cotton-cloth  manufactories,  and  shops  of 
every  description.'  Dr.  Clarke  says,  the  principal  trade  is  in  soap  ; 
but  the  manufactures  of  the  town  supply  a  very  widely  extended 
neighborhood.  The  watermelons  too  of  Nablous  are  equal,  he 
says,  to  those  of  Jaffa.  The  resident  population  is  supposed  to 
amount  to  10,000,  though  Mr.  Buckingham  thinks  this  is  rather 
over-rating  the  numbers.  These  are  almost  allMahommedans,  the 
Greek  Christians  scarcely  amounting,  he  says,  to  fifty.  But  Mr. 
Connor  states  that  there  are  about  a  hundred.  They  have  one 
church  and  two  priests.  Though  the  commerce  is  so  considerable, 
there  are  few  Jews,  owing  perhaps  to  a  religious  prejudice  against 
the  place  ;  Mr.  Buckingham  says,  none  among  the  permanent  resi- 
dents,— Mr.  Connor  says,  '  about  fifteen  individuals.'  Of  the  Sa- 
maritans, of  whom  a  respectable  remnant  existed  here  so  late  as  the 
time  of  Maundreli's  journey,  about  a  century  ago,  the  reverend  gen- 
tleman last  mentioned  gives  the  following  Interesting  account.  '  I 
immediately  made  inquiry  about  the  Samaritans.  My  host  stepped 
out,  and  fetched  their  priest:  he  sat  with  me  some  time :  his  name 
is  Shalmor  ben  Tabiah  •.  he  is  a  native  of  Napolose,  and  is  about 
forty  years  of  age. 

'There  are  about  forty  Samaritans  in  Napolose.  They  have  but 
one  synagogue  in  the  town,  where  they  have  service  every  Satur- 
day. Four  times  a  year  they  go,  in  solemn  procession,  to  the  old 
synagogue  on  Mount  Gerizim  ;  and,  on  these  occasions,  they  go  up 
before  sunrise,  and  read  the  law  till  noon.  On  one  of  these  days  of 
they  kill  six  or  seven  rams.  The  Samaritans  have  one  school  in 
Napolose,  where  their  language  is  taught.  The  head  of  the  sect  re- 
sides in  Paris. 

'  I  accompanied  the  priest  to  his  house,  and  sat  a  long  time  with 
him.  There  were  several  Jews  present:  they  seem  to  live  on 
friendly  terms  with  the  Samaritans  here.  The  priest  showed  me 
part  of  the  first  volume  of  the  English  Polyglott,  mentioned  by 
Maundrell :  it  consisted  of  about  a  dozen  tattered  leaves.  He  show- 
ed me  also  a  manuscript  Samaritan  Pentateuch,  with  an  Arabic 
version  at  its  side ;  this  version,  however,  is  not  used  in  their  syna- 
gogue. He  afterwards  took  me  to  see  the  synagogue,  making  me 
first  take  off  my  shoes  :  it  is  a  small  gloomy  building.  I  observed 
a  number  of  copies  of  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch,  carefully  envelop- 
ed in  linen,  and  laid  on  a  shelf  in  the  synagogue.  Expressing  a 
wish  to  see  the  ancient  manuscript,  said  by  the  Samaritans  to  be 
3500  years  old,  the  priest  paused,  and  hesitated  some  time.  I  press- 
ed him.  Having  laid  aside  his  upper  garments,  he  at  length  enter- 
ed the  sanctuary,  and  produced  the  venerated  manuscript.  It  is 
well  written  on  vellum,  in  the  Samaritan  character,  and  is  preserv- 
ed in  a  tin  roller :  it  bears  the  marks  of  age,  and  is  rather  tattered. 
The  priest  would  not  permit  me,  nor  any  one  present  to  touch  it. 
He  was  very  inquisitive  about  the  Samaritans  who,  he  had  heard, 
were  in  England.' 


SKETCHES  OF  PALESTINE.  391 

The  accounts  which  we  have  of  the  ancient  Samaritans,  (or  Cut- 
haeans,  as  they  are  called  by  the  Jewish  writers,  from  the  founder 
of  the  sect,  Sanballad,  a  Cuthite,)  have  cboie  to  us  chiefly  through 
their  inveterate  enemies  the  Jews;  whose  contempt  and  hatred 
were  apparently  excited  hy  their  being  a  mixed  race,  of  doubtful 
genealogy,  and  schismatical  in  their  creed.  In  rejecting  the  whole 
of  the  Old  Testament  excepting  the  Pentateuch,  they  were  coun- 
tenanced by  the  Sadducees.  Our  Lord,  however,  declares,  that 
they  worshipped  they  knew  notxwhat ;  *  which  seems  to  imply  that, 
although  they  cherished,  in  common  with  the  Jews,  the  expecta- 
tion of  a  Messiah,  their  worship  had  still  an  idolatrous  tincture  :  they 
*  feared  the  Lord,'  but,  if  they  did  not  still  'serve  graven  images,' 
like  their  ancestors,  f  they  did  not  worship  God  as  a  Spirit.  Not- 
withstanding their  emnity  against  the  Jews,  they  joined  in  revolt 
against  the  Romans,  and  shared  in  the  calamities  of  the  guilty  na- 
tion. After  the  fall  of  Jotapata  and  Jaffa,  eleven  thousand  six  hun- 
dred of  them  are  stated  to  have  posted  themselves  on  Mount  Gerizim; 
as  if,  like  the  Jews  of  Jerusalem,  trusting  to  the  protection  of  their 
temple,;or  resolved  to  perish  on  the'sacred  spot.  The  Roman  gen- 
eral Cerealis,  with  600  horsemen  and  300  footmen,  blockaded  them 
here  ;  and  after  inviting  them  to  surrender,  which  they  obstinately 
refused,  put  the  greater  part  to  the  sword. 

Five  centuries  after  the  Christian  era,  the  Samaritans,  who  still 
remained  a  distinct,  though  motley  race,  had  so  increased  in  strength 
that  they  rose  in  arms,  under  the  standard  of  a  desperate  leader,  to 
protect  themselves  against  the  persecution  of  the  emperor  Justinian. 
They  were,  says  Gibbon,  *  an  ambiguous  sect,  rejected  as  Jews  by 
the  Pagans,  by  the  Jews  as  schismatics,  and  by  the  Christians  as 
idolaters.  One  hundred  thousand,  it  has  been  computed,  perished, 
or  were  sold  as  captives  in  the  Samaritan  war,  which  converted  the 
once  fertile  province  into  a  wilderness.  A  remnant,  however,  have 
always  rallied  on  this  consecrated  spot,  under  the  shadow  of  Mount 
Gerizim.  In  1676,  a  correspondence  took  place  between  their 
chief  priest  at  Nablous  and  the  learned  Scaliger,  on  the  differences 
between  the  Samaritan  and  Hebrew  Pentateuchs,  in  the  course  of 
which  information  was  elicited  respecting  the  opinions  then  held 
by  this  ancient  sect.  The  summary  of  their  creed  was  to  this  ef- 
fect: That  they  believe  in  God,  and  in  the  laws  of  his  servant  Mo- 
ses ;  they  practise  circumcision ;  keep  the  sabbath  with  all  the  rig- 
or of  a  penance ;  observe  the  passover,  the  pentecost,  the  feast  of 
tabernacles,  and  the  great  fast  of  expiation  most  strictly;  and  nev- 
er offer  any  sacrifice  but  on  Mount  Gerizim.  The  hea.d  of  their 
religion  must  reside  at  Shechem.  In  1697,  Mr.  Maundrell  had  a 
personal  conference  with  the  Samaritan  chief-priest,  on  the  subject 
of  a  singular  discrepancy  between  the  text  of  the  Samaritan  Penta- 
teuch and  the  received  Hebrew  text.  The  passage  in  question  oc- 
curs Deut.  xxvii.  4 :  '  Therefore  it  shall  be,  when  ye  be  gone  over 

*  John  iv.  22.  1 2  Kinjs  xvii.  41. 


392  SKETCHES  OF  PALESTINE. 

Jordan,  that  ye  shall  set  up  these  stones,  which  I  command  you 
this  day  '  (inscribed  with  the  words  of  the  law)  '  in  Mount  Ebal ; 
and  thou  shalt  plaster  them  with  plaster  ;  and  there  shalt  thou  build 
an  altar  unto  the  Lord  thy  God.'  The  Samaritan  Pentateuch  has 
Mount  Gerizim  in  this  place ;  and  the  chief-priest  contended  that 
the  Jews  had  maliciously  altered  the  Hebrew  text  out  of  odium  to 
the  Samaritans  : '  putting,  for  Gerizim,  Ebal,  upon  no  other  account 
but  only  because  the  Samaritans  worshipped  in  the  former  moun- 
tain, which  they  would  have  for  that  reason  not  to  be  the  true  place 
appointed  by  God  for  his  worship  and  sacrifice.  To  confirm  this, 
he  pleaded  that  Ebal  was  the  mountain  of  cursing,  Deut.  xi.29,  and 
in  its  own  nature  an  unpleasant  place  ;  but,  on  the  contrary,  Geri- 
zim was  the  mountain  of  blessing,  by  God's  own  appointment,  and 
also  in  itself  fertile  and  delightful ;  from  whence  he  inferred  a  prob- 
ability that  this  latter  must  have  been  the  true  mountain  appoint- 
ed for  those  religious  festivals,  Deut.  xxvii.  4,  and  not  (as  the  Jews 
have  corruptly  written  it)  Hebal.  We  observed  that  to  be  in  some 
measure  true  which  he  pleaded  concerning  the  nature  of  both 
mountains;  for,  though  neither  of  the  mountains  has  much  to  boast 
of  as  to  their  pleasantness,  yet,  as  one  passes  between  them,  Geri- 
zim seems  to  discover  a  somewhat  more  verdant,  fruitful  aspect 
than  Ebal.  The  reason  of  which  may  be,  because  fronting  towards 
the  north,  it  is  sheltered  from  the  heat  of  the  sun  by  its  own  shade  ; 
whereas  Ebal,  looking  southward,  and  receiving  the  sun  that  comes 
directly  upon  it,  must,  by  consequence,  be  rendered  more  scorched 
and  unfruitful.  The  Samaritan  priest  could  not  say  that  any  of 
those  great  stones  which  God  directed  Joshua  to  set  up,  were  now 
to  be  seen  in  Mount  Gerizim;  which,  were  they  now  extant,  would 
determine  the  question  clearly  on  his  side.' 

Both  Mount  Gerizim  and  "Mount  Ebal  deserve  to  be  explored. 
Their  altitude  appeared  to  Mr.  Buckingham  to  be  nearly  equal,  not 
exceeding  7  or  800  feet  from  the  level  of  the  valley,  which  is  itself 
elevated.  Captains  Irby  and  Mangles  are  the  only  modern  travel- 
lers who  appear  to  have  ascended  either.  They  say  :  *  We  went 
to  the  summit  of  Mount  Gerizim,  and  found  the  ruins  of  a  large 
town,  with  a  tank  near  a  conspicuous  sheikh's  tomb.'  They  do 
not  appear,  however,  to  have  bestowed  much  attention  on  these 
ruins,  among  which  some  traces  of  their  boasted  temple  must,  one 
would  imagine,  be  still  discernible ;  nor  do  they  notice  any  syna- 
gogue there.  Mount  Ebal  they  did  not  ascend.*  In  the  Itinerary 
of  Benjamin  of  Tudela,  the  Cutheans  are  stated  to  offer  sacrifice  oa 
Mount  Gerizim,  on  an  altar  constructed  of  stones  brought  from  the 
Jordan  by  the  children  of  Israel.  He  describes  this  mountain  as 
full  of  fountains  and  gardens,  and  Ghebal  (Ebal)  as  arid  and  rocky. 
As  a  topographical  authority,  the  Itinerary  is  unquestionable. 
With  regard  to  the  point  at  issue,  it  may  be  thought  only  to  state 

*  Dr.  Richardson  says  :  c  On  Mount  Ebal  we  saw  a  considerable  village,  and  a  larg« 
building  like  a  ruined  fort.  But  he  did  not  ascend  its  summit. 


SKETCHES  OF  PALESTINE.  393 

the  matter  agreeably  to  the  Samaritan  tradition.  There  is  certain- 
ly much  plausibility  in  the  arguments  in  favor  of  the  Samaritan 
texts  ;  which,  in  many  other  instances  of  variation  from  the  receiv- 
ed toxt,  is  admitted  by  Biblical  critics  to  preserve  the  genuine 
reading.  It  is  very  probable,  that  a  further  collation  of  Hebrew 
MSS.  will  throw  some  light  on  the  question. 

The  town  is  governed  by  a  Mutsellirn,  or  Beg,  subject  to  the 
Pasha  of  Damascus,  and  having  under  his  command  about  400 
Arnaout  soldiers.  The  prevailing  costume  is  the  Turkish  dress; 
the  women  wear  a  colored  veil,  concealing  the  whole  face,  as 
in  the  towns  of  the  Yemen  ;  the  scarf  thrown  over  the  head  and 
shoulders  is  of  a  yellowish  white,  with  a  deep  red  border.  Nab- 
lous  is  in  long.  35?  22'  E.  lat.  32?  16'  N. ;  and  is  thirty-four  miles 
N.  of  Jerusalem. 

The  only  object  of  antiquity  noticed  by  travellers  within  the 
town,  is  the  eastern  front  of  a  ruined  church,  the  site  of  which  is 
now  occupied  by  one  of  the  mosques.  It  presents  a  fine  pointed 
arch,  supported  by  Corinthian  columns,  the  upper  part  highly 
ornamented,  in  the  style  of  some  of  the  Saracen  doors  in  Cairo: 
within  are  seen  plain  granite  pillars ;  and  the  whole  exhibits,  Mr. 
Buckingham  tells  us,  a  singular  mixture  of  orders,  in  the  most 
grotesque  taste. 

Just  without  the  city,  towards  Jerusalem,  is  a  small  mosque, 
said  to  have  been  built  over  the  sepulchre  purchased  by  the  patri- 
arch Jacob,  and  bearing  the  name  of  Joseph's  Sepulchre :  it  is  at 
the  foot  of  Mount  Gerizirn.  Mr.  Buckingham,  noticing  the  Ma- 
hommedan  buildings  here, 'either  mosques  or  tombs,' says,  they 
are  now  called  Mahmoodea.  '  On  the  left,'  he  adds,  *  at  the  foot  of 
Mount  Ebal,  were  several  well- hewn  grottoes  in  the  rock,  some 
with  arched,  and  others  withvsquare  doors,  most  probably  ancient 
sepulchres.'  These  he  had  no  time  to  examine,  although  the  most 
interesting  antiquities  of  the  place.  That  these  caves  may  have 
been  used  as  places  of  retreat  or  ascetic  seclusion,  is  very  probable  ; 
but  there  is  no  room  to  doubt  their  sepulchral  character.  They 
may,  or  may  not,  be  of  remote  antiquity  ;  but  of  this  description, 
and  not  far"  distant,  must  have  been  the  burial-place  of  Joseph, 
whose  bones  were  brought  up  out  of  Egypt  to  be  laid  in  Shechem. 
To  the  practice  of  burying  in  the  sides  of  mountains,  we  have 
repealed  references  in  the  Old  Testament.  Abraham  was  buried 
in  the  Cave  of  Machpelah  before  Mamre ;  Joshua,  on  the  north 
side  of  the  Hill  of  Gaash  in  Ephraim  ;*  Eleazer,  the  son  of  Aaron, 
in  a  hill  within  the  same  district ;  and  Aaron  himself  in  Mount 
Hor.f  The  '  parcel  of  ground '  given  by  Jacob  to  his  son,  is  gen- 
erally supposed  to  be  the  '  wide  field,'  as  Maundrell  terms  it,  into 
which  the  Valley  of  Sichem  opens  at  the  Well  of  Samaria;  and 
which  he  describes  as  'exceeding  verdant  and  fruitful,'  being 
watered  with  a  fresh  stream,  rising  between  it  and  the  town.  The 

*  Gen.  xxv.  9  ;  Josh.  xxiv.  22, 29.  f  Num.  xx.  28 ;  Deut.  x.  6- 


394  SKETCHES  OF  PALESTINE. 

precise  limits  of  this  purchase  it  would  be  ridiculous  to  attempt  to 
ascertain.  All  that  we  know  is,  that  it  was  near  Sichar,  'before,* 
or  eastward  of  the  city  ;  that  it  contained  a  well — a  possession  of 
the  greatest  importance  in  those  parts ;  and,  like  '  the  field  of 
Ephron'  purchased  by  Abraham,*  a  buryitig-place.  A  place  of 
burial  seems  to  have  given  a  sacredness  to  the  property  in  which 
it  was  situated,  and  to  have  rendered  the  inheritance  inalienable ; 
it  established  a  right  of  proprietorship,  and,  connected  with  this, 
what  we  should  call  a  right  of  common  to  the  neighboring  pas- 
tures.f  Thus,  we  find  the  sons  of  Jacob  leaving  their  father's  resi- 
dence in  Hebron,  to  feed  his  flocks  in  Shechetn,}  by  virtue  of  this 
right,  long  after  he  had  been  compelled  to  remove  from  this  neigh- 
borhood. The  burial-place  was,  no  doubt,  (as  that  of  Abraham 
and  that  of  Joshua  were,)  at  the  'end  of  the  field,'  on  the  'border 
of  the  inheritance,'  which  must  have  been  Mount  Gerizim  itself; 
and,  if  the  mosque  should  prove  to  conceal  the  entrance  to  a  later- 
al excavation  or  grotto,  of  the  kind  universally  chosen  for  sepul- 
chres of  distinguished  persons  by  the  ancient  Jews,  it  may  possibly 
mark  the  identical  place  'in  Shechem  where  the  bones  of  Joseph 
were  laid.' 

Next  to  Jerusalem  itself,  this  is,  perhaps,  the  most  interesting 
spot  in  the  Holy  Land,  as  connected  with  those  events  transacted 
in  the  fields  of  Sichem,  which,  from  our  earliest  years,  are  remem- 
bered with  delight.  '  Along  the  valley,'  says  Dr.  Clarke,  '  we  be- 
hold a  company  of  Ishmaelites  coming  from  Gilead,  as  in  the  days 
of  Reuben  and  Judah,  'with  their  camels,  bearing  spicery,  and 
balm,  and  myrrh,' §  who  would  gladly  have  purchased  another 
Joseph  of  his  brethren,  and  conveyed  him,  as  a  slave,  to  some  Po- 
tiphar  in  Egypt.  Upon  the  hills  around,  flocks  and  herds  were 
feeding  as  of  old  ;  nor,  in  the  simple  garb  of  the  shepherds  of  Sa- 
maria, was  there  any  thing  to  contradict  the  notions  we  may  enter- 
tain of  the  appearance  formerly  exhibited  by  the  sons  of  Jacob.' 
'The  morning  after  our  arrival,  we  met  caravans  coming  from 
Grand  Cairo,  and  noticed  others  reposing  in  the  large  olive- planta- 
tions near  the  gates.' 

Leaving  Nablous,  the  road  lies  along  the  narrow  vale,  and,  in 
about  three  quarters  of  an  hour,  conducts  the  traveller  to  a  copious 
spring  of  good  water,  called  Beer-sheba.  This,  Dr.  Richardson 
says,  is  the  broadest  and  best  cultivated  part  of  the  valley  ;  he  saw 
the  natives  busily  engaged  (May)  in  reaping  a  scanty  crop  of  bar- 
ley. Maundrell  notices  a  village  on  the  left  of  the  road  (going 
northwards)  called  Barseba,  deriving  its  name,  no  doubt,  from  this 
well ;  and,  half  an  hour  further,  another  village  which  he  calls  She- 
rack.  After  leaving  Beer-sheba,  Dr.  Richardson's  account  makes 
the  road  ascend.  '  In  about  a  quarter  of  an  hour,'  he  says,  'we 
reached  the  top  of  the  hill ;  and  as  we  wound  our  way  down  the 
other  side,  had  an  excellent  view  of  the  delightfully  situated  Sebaste. 

*  Gen.  xxiii.  17.        f  Gen.  xxxiv.  5.        J  Gen.  xxxvii.  12— 14.       §  Gen.  xxxvii.  25. 


SKETCHES  OF  PALESTINE.  395 

In  a  few  minutes  we  passed  a  ruined  aqueduct  of  Roman  architec- 
ture, and  pitched  our  tents  at  the  bottom  of  the  lull,  nearly  oppo- 
site to  its  unworthy  successor,  a  poor  village  of  the  same  name; 
having  travelled  this  day  about  nine  hours.'  This  makes  the  dis- 
tance from  Khan  Leban  about  twenty-seven  miles,  but,  allowing 
for  deviations  from  the  direct  track,  twenty-four  miles,  and  sixteen 
hours,  or  forty-eight  miles,  from  Jerusalem.  Josephus,  however, 
makes  it  but  one  day's  journey  from  the  capital.*  It  is  six  miles 
beyond  Napolose  ;  and  if  the  distance  of  the  latter  place  is  correct- 
ly given  by  our  authorities,  it  cannot  exceed  forty  miles. 

Sebaste  is  the  name  which  Herod  gave  to  the  ancient  Samaria, 
the  imperial  city  of  the  ten  tribes,  in  honor  of  Augustus  (Sebastos) 
Ca3sar,  when  he  rebuilt  and  fortified  it,  converting  the  greater  part 
of  it  into  a  citadel,  and  erecting  here  a  noble  temple.  '  The  situa- 
tion,'says  Dr.  Richardson, 'is  extremely  beautiful,  and  strong  by- 
nature;  more  so,  1  think,  than  Jerusalem.  It  stands  on  a  fine, 
large,  insulated  hill,  compassed  all  around  by  a  broad  deep  valley ; 
and  when  fortified,  as  it  is  stated  to  have  been  by  Herod,  one 
would  have  imagined  that,  in  the  ancient  system  of  warfare, 
nothing  but  famine  could  have  reduced  such  a  place.  The  valley 
is  surrounded  by  four  hills,  one  on  each  side,  which  are  cultivated 
in  terraces  up  to  the  top,  sown  with  ^rain,  and  planted  with  fig 
and  olive  trees,  as  is  also  the  valley.  The  hill  of  Samaria  likewise 
rises  in  terraces  to  a  height  equal  to  any  of  the  adjoining  moun- 
tains. 

'The  present  village  is  small  and  poor,  and  after  passing  the 
valley,  the  ascent  to  it  is  very  steep.  Viewed  from  the  station  of 
our  tents,  it  is  extremely  interesting,  both  from  its  natural  situation, 
and  from  the  picturesque  remains  of  a  ruined  convent,  of  good 
Gothic  architecture. 

'Having  passed  the  village,  towards  the  middle  of  the  first 
terrace,  there  is  a  number  of  columns  still  standing.  I  counted 
twelve  in  one  row,  besides  several  that  stood  apart,  the  brotherless 
remains  of  other  rows.  The  situation  is  extremely  delightful,  and 
my  guide  informed  me,  that  they  belonged  to  the  serai,  or  palace. 
On  the  next  terrace  there  are  no  remains  of  solid  building,  but 
heaps  of  stone  and  lime  and  rubbish  mixed  with  the  soil  in  great 
profusion.  Ascending  to  the  third  or  highest  terrace,  the  traces  of 
former  buildings  were  not  so  numerous,  but  we  enjoyed  a  delight- 
ful view  of  the  surrounding  country.  The  eye  passed  over  the 
deep  valley  that  encompasses  the  hill  of  Sebaste,  and  rested  on  the 
mountain  beyond,  that  retreated  as  they  rose  with  a  gentle  slope, 
and  met  the  view  in  every  direction,  like  a  book  laid  out  for  peru- 
sal on  a  reading-desk.  This  was  the  seat  of  the  capital  of  the 
short-lived  and  wicked  kingdom  of  Israel ;  and  on  the  face  of 
these  mountains  the  eye  surveys  the  scene  of  many  bloody  conflict! 
and  many  memorable  events.  Here  those  holy  men  of  God,  Elijah 

*  Josephus  Antiq.  book  XT.  chap.  9.  f  Ibid. 


396  SKETCHES  OF  PALESTINE. 

and  Elisha,  spoke  their  tremendous  warnings  in  the  ears  of  their 
incorrigible  rulers,  and  wrought  their  miracles  in  the  sight  of  all 
the  people. 

*  From  this  lofty  eminence  we  descended  to  the  south  side  of 
the  hill,  where  we  saw  the  remains  of  a  stately  colonnade  that 
stretches  along  this  beautiful  exposure  from  east  to  west.  Sixty 
columns  are  still  standing  in  one  row.  The  shafts  are  plain,  and 
fragments  of  Ionic  volutes,  that  lie  scattered  about,  testify  the 
order  to  which  they  belonged.  These  are  probably  the  relics  of 
some  of  the  magnificent  structures  with  which  Herod  the  Great 
adorned  Samaria.  None  of  the  walls  remain.' 

Mr.  Buckingham  mentions  a  current  tradition,  that  the  avenue 
of  columns  formed  a  part  of  Herod's  palace.  According  to  his 
account,  there  were  eighty-three  of  these  columns  erect  in  1816, 
besides  others  prostrate;  all  without  capitals.  Josephus  states, 
that,  about  the  middle  of  the  city,  Herod  built  'a  sacred  place,  of  a 
furlong  and  a  half  in  circuit,  and  adorned  it  with  all  sorts  of  deco- 
rations ;  and  therein  erected  a  temple,  illustrious  for  both  its  large- 
ness and  beauty.'  It  is  probable  that  these  columns  belonged  to  it. 
On  the  eastern  side  of  the  same  summit  are  the  remains,  Mr. 
Buckingham  states,  of  another  building,  'of  which  eight  large  and 
eight  small  columns  are  still  standing,  with  many  others  fallen 
near  them.  These  also  are  without  capitals,  and  are  of  a  smaller 
size  and  of  an  inferior  stone  to  the  others.'  'In  the  walls  of  the 
humble  dwellings  forming  the  modern  village,  portions  of  sculptur- 
ed blocks  of  stone  are  perceived,  and  even  fragments  of  granite 
pillars  have  been  worked  into  the  masonry.'  The  Gothic  convent 
referred  to  by  Dr.  Richardson,  is  the  ruined  cathedral,  attributed, 
like  every  thing  else  of  the  kind  in  Palestine,  to  the  Empress 
Helena.  It  stands  east  and  west,  and  is  about  100  feet  in  length, 
by  50  in  breadth.  '  On  the  south  side  are  high,  slender  buttresses; 
and  on  a  piece  of  building  without  this,  is  a  sloping  pyramidal 
mole,  constructed  of  exceedingly  large  stones.  The  northern  wall 
is  quite  plain;  the  eastern  front  is  semi-circular,  with  three  open 
and  two  closed  windows  each,  contained  in  arches  divided  from 
each  other  by  three  Corinthian  columns.  The  interior  of  the  east- 
ern front  has  a  pointed  arch,  and  columns  of  no  known  order; 
though  the  capitals  approach  nearer  to  the  Corinthian  than  any 
other.  The  eight  small  arches  which  go  round  the  tops  of  the 
windows  within,  are  semicircular,  and  have  each  at  their  spring  the 
capital  of  a  column,  but  no  shalt  attached  to  it ;  the  great  arch  of 
the  recess  is  pointed,  and  the  moulding  that  passes  round  it  is  fan- 
tastic in  the  extreme.  Among  other  things  seen  there,  are  the 
representations  of  scaly  armor,  an  owl,  an  eagle,  a  human  figure, 
and  an  angel,  all  occupying  separate  compartments,  and  all  distinct 
from  each  other. 

'  The  exterior  of  the  eastern  front  presents  a  still  more  singular 
mixture  of  style,  as  the  pointed  and  the  round  arch  are  both  used 
in  the  same  range,  and  the  ornaments  of  each  are  varied.  In  the 


SKETCHES  OF  PALESTINE.  397 

lower  cornice  are  human  heads,  perhaps  in  allusion  to  the  severed 
head  of  the  Baptist ;  and  there  are  here  as  fantastic  figures  as  on  the 
inside,  the  whole  presenting  a  strange  assemblage  of  incongruous 
ornaments  in  the  most  wretched  taste. 

'  The  masonry  appears  in  some  parts  to  have  been  exceedingly 
solid,  in  others  only  moderately  good,  and  in  some  places  weak  and 
paltry  ;  and  at  the  west  end,  in  a  piece  of  building,  apparently  add- 
ed since  the  original  construction  of  the  church  itself,  are  seen  sev- 
eral blocks  of  sculptured  stone,  apparently  taken  from  the  ruins, 
and  worked  into  the  present  masonry  there. 

'  On  the  inside  of  this  ruined  edifice  is  a  small  mosque,  erected 
over  the  supposed  dungeon  in  which  St.  John  was  executed  ;  and 
an  Arab  family,  who  claim  the  guardianship  of  this  sanctuary,  have 
pitched  their  dwelling  on  the  south-west  angle  of  the  great  church, 
where  it  has  the  appearance  of  a  pigeon-house.  On  learning  that 
I  was  a  Moslem,  we  were  all  admitted  into  this  mosque,  which  we 
entered  with  becoming  reverence.  They  have  collected  here  the 
white  marble  slabs,  found  amid  the  ruins  of  the  church,  to  form  a 
pavement;  and  in  one  part  we  noticed  three  large  pieces,  with 
sculptured  circles  and  bands  on  them,  which  were  set  up  in  the 
wall  as  tablets. 

'  The  mosque  itself  is  a  small  oblong  room,  with  steps  ascending 
to  an  oratory,  and  its  only  furniture  is  a  few  simple  lamps  and  some 
clean  straw  mats  for  prayer,  the  recess  of  the  Caaba  being  in  the 
southern  wall.  From  the  mosque,  we  descended  by  a  narrow 
flight  of  steps  to  the  subterranean  chamber  or  dungeon  of  St.  John, 
which  had  all  the  appearance  of  having  been  an  ancient  sepulchre. 
It  was  not  more  than  ten  feet  square  ;  and  had  niches,  as  if  for  the 
reception  of  corpses,  in  arched  recesses  on  each  side.  There  was 
here,  too,  one  of  those  remarkable  stone  doors,  which  seem  to  have 
been  exclusively  appropriated  to  tombs,  resembling  exactly  in  form 
and  size  those  described  in  the  Roman  sepulchres  at  Oorn  Kais. 
The  pannelling,  the  lower  pivot,  and  the  sill  in  the  ledge  for  receiv- 
ing the  bolt,  were  all  still  perfect ;  but  the  door  was  now  unhung, 
and  lay  on  its  side  against  the  wall.' 

In  the  court  at  the  west  end  of  the  church  are  '  two  apertures 
leading  down  to  a  large  subterranean  reservoir  for  water,  well  stuc- 
coed on  the  inside,  and  during  the  rains  often  filled  to  the  brim.' 

The  modern  Sebaste  is  governed  by  its  own  sheikh,  who  is  him- 
self a  husbandman  :  the  natives  pronounce  the  name  of  the  place 
Subusta. 

The  route  taken  by  Dr.  Richardson  now  passes  over  the  moun- 
tain to  the  east  of  Sebaste,  and  then  descends  to  a  ruined  building 
called  by  the  natives  Beit  Emireen  (the  house  of  the  two  princes), 
near  a  village  of  the  same  name,  by  a  stream  of  water.  '  Leaving 
this  valley,'  he  continues,  *  we  crossed  the  mountain  to  the  left,  and 
after  travelling  about  an  hour  along  a  very  rough  and  stony  ravine, 
we  came  to  the  village  of  Gibba,  which  is  surrounded  with  olive  and 
pomegranate  trees,  the  latter  of  which  were  in  full  blow,  and  occu- 
35 


398  SKETCHES  OF  PALESTINE. 

pies  a  lofty  station  to  overlook  a  small  valley.  From  Gibba  we  pro- 
ceeded along  the  valley  to  Sannour,  which  is  a  fort  erected  on  an 
insulated  mountain  that  springs  up  in  the  middle  of  the  valley.  It 
is  commonly  called  Khallah  Giurali,  or  Fort  Jurali.  from  Giurali, 
(Jerar  ?)  the  name  of  the  chief  who  commands  the  country.  A  few 
miles  further  on,  we  came  to  Abata,  a  pleasant  village  on  our  right, 
&nd  similarly  situated  to  Gibba,  among  olive  and  pomegranate  trees. 
The  inhabitants  are  said  to  be  particularly  hospitable  and  kind  to 
strangers.  We  did  not  stop  to  put  their  hospitality  to  the  test,  but 
continued  our  route  along  the  narrow  dell,  and  having  crossed 
another  mountain  on  the  left,  opened  the  beautiful  vale  of  Esdrae- 
ion,  and  the  town  of  Jeriin,  pleasantly  situated  at  the  foot  of  the 
mountain.  We  descended  to  a  level  piece  of  stony  ground  which 
bore  a  tolerably  good  crop  of  thistles,  and  pitched  our  tents  on  the 
outside  of  the  town,  having  travelled  this  day  about  eight  hours  and 
a  half.' 

Sannour,  or  Sanhcor,  called  by  Dr.  Clarke  Santorri,  deserves  a 
more  particular  notice.  He  makes  it  three  hours,  or  nine  miles, 
from  Jenin.  The  easlle,  which  he  describes  as  very  much  resem- 
bling the  old  castellated  buildings  in  England,  is  very  strong:  it 
held  out  against  Djezzar  Pasha,  when  he  held  the  pashalic  of  Da- 
mascus, for  two  months,  and  he  was  compelled  at  last  to  raise  the 
siege.  In  the  time  of  the  Crusades  it  must  have  been  impregnable. 
'Yet,'  says  Dr.  Clarke,  'there  is  no  account  of  it  in  any  author;  and 
certainly  it  is  not  of  later  construction  than  the  period  of  the  holy 
wars.'  if  the  learned  traveller  has  given  the  present  name  correct- 
Jy,  it  would  seem,  both  from  the  meaning  and  the  language  of  the 
word,  holy  fewer,  to  date  from  the  Crusades.  But,  doubtless,  the 
site  is  noticed  by  the  older  writers,  under  its  original  name.  Their 
supposed  silence,  however,  tempted  Dr.  Clarke  to  hazard  the  strange 
conjecture  that  it  might  be  the  site  of  Samaria ;  for,  in  his  gallop 
through  the  Holy  Land,  he  forgot  to  visit,  or  overlooked  Sebaste! 
The  hill  commands  the  view  to  the  northward  of  a  fine  broad  val- 
ley, bounded  by  other  hills  on  every  side,  about  two  miles  in  breadth 
and  rive  in  length :  the  valley  southward  is  narrower,  and  both  are 
cultivated.  The  ascent  is  steep  on  all  sides.  The  walls  of  the 
town  are  strongly  built,  'apparently,'  says  Mr.  Buckingham,  'of 
old  Saracenic  work,'  and  in  circuit  less  than  half  a  mile,  with  two 
gates  in  opposite  quarters.  The  houses  are  well  built,  but  the  streets 
are  narrow;  the  inhabitants  all  Mahommedans.  The  governor 
(then  Hadje  Ahraed  Jerar)  is  tributary  to  Damascus,  but  absolute 
within  Lis  own  territory,  which  includes  several  towns  and  villages, 
with  extensive  lands  around  them,  of  which  he  is  as  it  were  the 
feudal  lord.  Hadje  Ahmed  is  described  as  of  a  most  amiable  and 
patriarchal  character ;  and  the  aspect  of  the  country  bore  the  most 
pleasing  marks  of  the  benign  influence  of  his  mild  and  paternal 
government. 

Jennin,  or  Genii),  (pronounced  Djenneen,}  the  ancient  Ginaia,  or 
Giurea,  and  supposed  to  be  the  Geman  of  Joseph  us,  was  the  fron- 


SKETCHES  OF  PALESTINE.  399 

tier  town  of  Samaria  on  the  border  of  Galilee ;  being  situated  at 
the  entrance  of  the  great  plain.  It  is  mentioned  by  Josephus  as 
the  scene  of  a  battle  between  the  Galileans,  who  were  going  up  to 
Jerusalem  to  the  feast  of  tabernacles,  and  the  natives.  It  is  now  a 
mere  village,  containing  about  800  inhabitants ;  but  there  are  evi- 
dences of  its  having  once  been  of  much  greater  extent.  There  are 
the  remains  of  a  Christian  con  vent  on  the  outside  of  the  walls,  now 
partly  occupied  by  a  Turkish  cemetery.  Within  the  town>  Dr. 
Clarke  observed  the  ruins  of  a  palace  and  a  mosque,  with  marble 
pillars,  fountains,  and  even  piazzas,  some  in  a  very  perfect  state. 
An  Arabic  inscription  over  one  of  these  buildings,  purports  that  it 
was  erected  by  an  individual  of  the  name  of  Selim.  As  a  fence  to 
the  gardens,  Dr.  Clarke  noticed  the  Indian  Fig,  growing  to  so  enor- 
mous a  size,  that  the  stem  was  larger  than  a  man's  body  ;  and  its 
gaudy  blossoms  made  a  most  splendid  show  in  the  midst  of  its 
bristly  spines. 

The  route  from  Jennin  to  Nazareth  lies  directly  across  the  plain 
of  Esdraelon,  a  distance  of  seven  hours,  or  twenty-one  miles.  Near- 
ly in  the  middle  of  the  plain  is  the  line  of  separation  between  the 
pashalics  of  Acre  and  of  Damascus.  The  road  to  Tiberias,  which 
we  are  now  to  follow,  proceeds  eastward  along  this  beautiful  vale; 
watered,  in  this  part,  by  a  fertilizing  stream,  which,  says  Dr.  Rich- 
ardson, '  we  crossed  and  re-crossed  several  times  in  our  march.  In 
four  hours  after  leaving  Jennia,  we  came  to  the  source,  where  it  is- 
sues in  a  large  current  from  the  rock,  and  is  called  El  Geleed  or,  the 
•  cold.  In  two  hours  more  we  came  to  Bisan.  The  delightful  vale  of 
Esdraelon  is  but  thinly  inhabited,  and  not  half  cultivated  or  stocked 
with  cattle.  We  did  not  pass  a  single  village,  and  saw  but  few  Be- 
doween  encampments  till  we  came  near  to  Bisan.  As  we  ap- 
proached this  miserable  village,  we  gradually  withdrew  from  the 
vale,  and  got  upon  an  elevated  rocky  flat,  covered  with  a  thin  and 
meagre  sprinkling  of  earth  ;  the  vegetation  which  it  bore  was  scan- 
ty, and  quite  brown  from  the  lack  of  moisture.  The  valley  of  the 
Jordan  began  to  open  on  our  view,  and,  before  we  came  up  to 
the  village,  we  passed  the  remains  of  a  Roman  fortress  and  a  Ro- 
man theatre,  with  many  vaults*  and  columns,  on  the  left  of  our 
route.  The  village  itself  is  a  collection  of  the  most  miserable  hov- 
els, containing  about  200  inhabitants;  and,  on  looking  at  their 
wretched  accommodation,  and  comparing  it  with  a  Bedoween  en- 
campment that  was  spread  out  at  a  little  distance  in  the  valley,  we 
were  not  surprised  to  hear  that,  in  these  countries,  the  dwellers  in 
tents  look  on  the  dwellers  in  towns  as  an  inferior  class  of  beings.' 

The  young  emir,  or  chief  of  the  Arabs  of  Bisan,  who  waited  on 
Lord  Belmore,  arrayed  in  his  black  abba  and  yellow  boots,  is  de- 
scribed as  a  mild-tempered,  intelligent  youth  ;  but  the  rest  of  the  in- 
habitants had  the  most  ruffian-like  and  depraved  appearance. 

Bisan,  the  Bethsanor  Bethshan  of  Scripture,  f  is  the  Scythopolis 

*  Supposed  to  be  the  ruins  of  subterranean  granaries. 

t  Josh.  xvii.  11 ;  1  Sam.  xxxi.  12 ;  1  Kings  iv.  12.    It  was  one  of  the  towns  which  Ma- 


400  SKETCHES  OF  PALESTINE. 

of  the  Greek  and  Roman  writers.  It  was  the  largest  city  of  the 
Decapolis,  and  the  only  one  on  that  side  of  the  Jordan.  The  thea- 
tre is  quite  distinct,  and  measures  about  180  feet  in  length:  it  is 
completely  filled  with  weeds.  In  one  of  the  most  concealed  vomi- 
tories, Captain  Mangles  states  that  they  found  twenty-four  human 
skulls,  with  other  bones.  A  viper  was  basking  in  one  of  the  skulls, 
with  his  body  twisted  between  the  eyes, — *  a  good  subject  for  a 
moralizer.'  In  some  of  the  tombs  which  lie  to  the  N.  E.  of  the 
acropolis,  without  the  walls,  there  remained  sarcophagi ;  and,  in  a 
few  instances,  the  doors  were  still  hanging  on  their  ancient  hinges 
of  stone:  they  observer!  also  niches  of  a  triangular  shape  for  lamps. 
Two  streams  run  through  the  ruins  of  the  city,  almost  insulating 
the  acropolis  :  over  the  one  to  the  S.  W.  is  a  fine  Roman  bridge,  be- 
yond which  may  be  seen  the  paved  way  which  led  to  the  ancient 
Ptolemais  (Acre).  These  streams  afterwards  unite,  and  are  cross- 
ed by  another  bridge,  having  one  high  arch  in  the  centre,  and  two 
smaller  ones,  which  have  been  walled  up:  along  the  outer  edge  of 
this  bridge,  the  wall  of  the  city  was  continued  ;  and  on  the  hill,  near 
the  arch,  the  ruins  of  one  of  the  gates  of  the  city  are  distinguisha- 
ble ;  there  are  some  prostrate  columns  of  the  Corinthian  order. 
The  acropolis  is  a  high  circular  hill,  on  the  top  of  which  are  traces 
of  the  ancient  walls  of  the  fortress.  Dr.  Richardson  noticed  masses 
of  ejected  lava  scattered  round  the  village  ;  and  the  mountains,  he 
says,  have  the  appearance  of  extinct  volcanoes. 

Pursuing  the  route  to  Tiberias,  up  the  delightful  plain  of  the  Jor- 
dan, the  traveller  has  on  his  left  Mount  Gilboa,  which  comes  close 
to  Bisan,  and  bounds  the  plain  on  the  west.  The  natives  still  call 
it  Djebel  Gilbo.  It  is  a  lengthened  ridge ;  rising  up  in  peaks,  about 
800  feet  above  the  level  of  the  road,  and  probably  1000  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  Jordan.  On  the  east,  the  plain  is  bounded  by  a 
high  mountain  range,  which  forms  part  of  Mount  Gilead,  so  that 
the  view  on  both  sides  is  extremely  interesting ;  and  at  the  time  of 
Dr.  Richardson's  journey  (May),  rich  crops  of  barley,  apparently 
over-ripe,  added  to  the  beauty  of  the  landscape.  After  riding  for 
nearly  three  hours,  the  route  led  them  to  the  banks  of  the  Jordan, 
where  it  is  crossed  by  a  large  stone  bridge,  consisting  of  one  large 
and  two  smaller  arches.  Here  a  large  khan  has  been  built  for  the 
accommodation  of  travellers  who  take  the  road  to  Damascus  through 
the  Decapolis  and  Mount  Gilead.  The  river  at  this  point  is  of  a 
considerable  depth,  and  between  thirty  and  forty  feet  wide  ;  the  chan- 
nel very  stony,  and  the  waters  of  a  «  white  sulphureous  color,'  but 
free  from  any  unpleasant  smell  or  taste.  Near  Bisan,  its  width  is 
one  hundred  and  forty  feet,  and  the  current  is  much  more  rapid. 
Beyond  the  bridge,  the  plain  of  the  Jordan  narrows  into  a  valley, 
and  the  river  remains  in  sight  till  the  traveller  arrives  at  the  shores 

nassnh  had  in  Isachar.    To  the  wall  of  Bethsan  the  Philistines  fastened  the  bodies  of 
Saul  and  his  three  sons,  after  they  had  fallen  in  Mount  Gilboa. 


SKETCHES  OF  PALESTINE.  401 

of  the  Lake  of  Tiberias ;  a  distance  of  about  eight  hours,  or  twenty- 
four  miles  from  Bisan.* 

Tiberias,  still  called  by  the  natives  Tabaria,  or  Tabbareeah,  was 
anciently  one  of  the  principal  towns  of  Galilee.  It  was  built  by 
Herod  the  Tetrarch,  and  named  by  him  hi  honor  of  Tiberias,  the 
Roman  emperor,  with  whom  he  was  a  great  favorite.f  Very  con- 
siderable privileges  were  granted  to  those  who  chose  to  settle  there, 
in  order  to  overcome  the  prejudice  arising  from  the  city's  having 
been  built  on  a  site  full  of  ancient  sepulchres;  from  which  circum- 
stance we  may  infer  the  existence  of  a  former  city  in  the  vicinity ; 
this  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  ancient  Cinneroth  or  Kinnereth. 
Here,  during  a  visit  paid  to  the  city  by  Herod  Agrippa,t.he  kings  of 
Comagene,  of  Emessa,  of  the  lesser  Armenia,  of  Pontus,  and  of 
Chalcis,  met  to  do  him  honor,  and  were  magnificently  entertained.t 
After  the  downfall  of  Jerusalem,  it  continued  to  be,  until  the  fifth 
century,  the  residence  of  Jewish  rabbles  and  learned  men  ;  and  was 
the  seat  of  a  patriarch,  who  acted  as  the  supreme  judge  between 
persons  of  his  own  nation.  The  office  was  hereditary,  and  was 
supported  with  some  lustre,  under  the  Emperor  Hadrian,  in  the 
person  of  Selim  III. ;  but,  in  the  year  429,  it  was  suppressed,  after 
subsisting  350  years,  under  nine  or  ten  "patriarchs.  In  the  sixth 
century,  according  to  Procopius,  Justinian  rebuilt  the  walls.  In 
the  seventh,  A.  D.  640,  during  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Heraclius, 
the  city  was  taken  by  the  Saracens  under  Caliph  Omar.  Yet,  in 
the  eighth,  it  is  mentioned  in  an  Itinerary  cited  by  Reland,  as  still 
containing  many  churches  and  Jewish  synagogues.  Pococke, 
without  citing  his  authority,  says,  that  the  Jewish  rabbins  lived 
here  till  the  eleventh  century,  but  that  the  Jews  had  left  the  place 
above  eight  hundred  years.  It  seems  doubtful,  however,  whether 
it  has  ever  been  wholly  deserted  by  them.  Tiberias  was  an 
ancient  seat  of  Jewish  literature.  A  university  was  founded  here 
by  the  patriarch,  after  the  fall  of  Jerusalem ;  and  it  is  remarkable, 
that  there  is  a  college  of  Jews  in  Tabaria  at  the  present  time :  it 
would  be  very  interesting  to  ascertain  the  date  of  its  establishment. 
Dr.  Richardson  found  six  rabbies  engaged  in  studying  Hebrew 
folios.  'They  occupied  two  large  rooms,  which  were  surrounded 
with  books,  and  said  they  spent  their  time  entirely  in  studying  the 
Scriptures  and  commentaries  thereon.  I  regretted  much,'  adds 
Dr.  R.,  'that  I  had  not  been  apprised  of  this  institution  at  an  earlier 
part  of  the  day.  Not  having  an  interpreter  with  me,  I  could  not 
turn  my  short  interview  to  the  same  advantage  that  I  should  other- 
wise have  done.' 

The  modern  town  of  Tabaria  is  situated  close  to  the  edge  of  the 
lake.  It  has  tolerably  high  but  ill -built  walls  on  three  of  its  sides, 

*  The  river  Jordan,  on  issuing  from  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  flows  for  about  three  hours  near 
the  western  hills  :  it  then  turns  towards  the  eastern,  on  which  side  it  continues  its  course 
for  several  hours,  till,  at  Korn^el-Hemar,  it  returns  to  the  western  side. 

f  Joseph.  Antiq.  lib.  xviii.  cap.  3  ;  De  Bell.  lib.  ii.  cap.  8. 

t  Joseph.  Antiq.  lib.  xix.  cap,  7. 

35* 


402  SKETCHES  OF  PALESTINE. 

flanked   with  circular  towers ;  on  the  fourth,  it  is  open  to  the 
water.     Its  figure  is  nearly  quadrangular ;  according  to  Pococke, 
it  is  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile  in  length,  and  half  that  in  breadth  ;  in 
circumference,  therefore,  about  three  quarters  of  a  mile.     Like  all 
Turkish  cita'dels,  it  has  an  imposing  appearance  from  without; 
and  its  fortifications  and  circular  towers  give  it  more  the  aspect  of 
a  Moorish    city  than   most  of  the   towns   of  Palestine.     But  it 
exhibits  the  utmost  wretchedness  within  the  walls,  one-fourth  of  the 
space  being  wholly  unoccupied,  and  the  few  houses  or  huts  which 
it  contains  are  not  built  contiguously.     The  sheikh's  house  is 
described  by  Van  Egmont  as  tolerably  good,  and  indeed  the  only 
building  that  deserves  the  name ;  and  even  this  owes  its  beauty  to 
the  ruins  out  of  which  it  is  built.     Adjoining  to  it  is  a  large  hand- 
some structure,  which  serves  as  a  stable.     Near  the  sheikh's  house 
are  the  ruins  of  a  very  large  castle,  with  some  remains  of  towers, 
moats,  and  other  works,  which  probably  commanded  the  harbor. 
One   of  these  works,  facing  the   lake,  has   been   turned   into  a 
mosque.    On  the  rising  ground  to  the  northward  of  the  ruin, 
stands  the  modern  castle,  which  dates  only  a  few  years  before  the 
period  of  Pocock's  visit.     Hasselquist  informs  us,  that  it  owes  its 
erection  to  Sheikh  Daker,  a  native  of  Tiberias,  and  at  that  time 
independent  lord  of  the  place,  which  he  had  recently  defended 
against  the  Pasha  of  Seide.     'He  had  no  more  than  six  small  iron 
cannon  in  this  work  of  defence ;  but  he  used  another  method,  still 
more  ancient  than  cannons,  for  defending  forts.     He  ordered  loose 
etones  to  be  laid  on  the  top  of  the  wall,  four  feet  high,  which  in 
case  of  a  siege,  might  be  rolled  down,  and  crush  the  besiegers.' 
The  marks  of  the  siege  were  then  to  be  seen   on  the  walls. 
Pococke,  who  preceded  Hasselquist  'about  thirteen  years,  was  at 
Tiberias  when  the  fort  was  building,  and  they  were  strengthening 
the  old  walls  with  buttresses  on  the  inside,  the  sheikh  then  having 
a  dispute  with  Pasha  of  Damascus.     *  They  have  often,'  he  adds, 
4  had  disputes  with  the  pashas  of  Damascus,  who  have  come  and 
planted  their  cannon  against  the  city,  and  sometimes  have  beaten 
down  part  of  the  walls,  but  were  never  able  to  take  it.'     The  town 
has  only  two  gates;  one  near  the  sheikh's  house,  facing  the  sea; 
the  other,  which  was  very  large,  is  partly  walled  up,  the  city  on 
that  side  being  uninhabited.     The  nouses  are  described  by  Van 
Egmont  as  'very  mean  and  low  cottages,  some  of  stone,  nnd  others 
of  dried  mud,  and  can  hardly  be  said  to  be  above  the  ground.    On 
the  terraces,  which  even  the  lints  in  this  country  are  not  without, 
they  build  tents  of  rushes.'    Mr.  Buckingham  states,  that  there  are 
two  synagogues  near  the  centre  of  the  town,  both  of  them  inferior 
to  that  of  Jerusalem,  though  similar  in  design  ;  and,  on  the  rising 
ground  near  the  northern  quarter,  a  small,  but  good  bazar,  and  two 
or  three  coffee-sheds. 

The  only  interesting  relic  of  antiquity  in  the  town,  is  the  church 
dedicated  to  St.  Peter ;  an  oblong  square  edifice,  arched  over,  said 
to  be  on  the  spot  where  the  house  of  St.  Peter  was  though  St. 


SKETCHES  OF  PALESTINE.  403 

Peter  lived  at  Capernaum.    It  stands  at  the  north-east  corner  of 
the  town,  close  to  the   water's  edge,  and  is  described  by  Mr. 
Buckingham  as  a  vaulted  room,  about  thirty  feet  by  fifteen,  and 
perhaps  fifteen  feet  in  height:  over  the  door  is  one  small  window, 
and  on  each  side  four  others,  all  arched  and  open. '  The  ancient 
town  extended  about  half  a  mile  further  to  the  south  than  the 
present  walls,  as  is  indicated  by  a  great  number  of  confused  ruins ; 
and  Pococke  observed,  that  the  suburbs  extended  still  further  in 
the  same  direction.    Near  the  present  town,  he  says,  there  are 
ruins  of  another  church ;  and  further  on  some  signs  of  a  large 
square  building,  about  which  lie  several  pillars,  which  might  be  the 
house  of  the  government.    Captain  Mangles  states,  that  'at  the 
northern  extremity  of  the  ruins  are  the  remains  of  the  ancient 
town,  which  are  discernible  by  means  of  the   walls  and  other 
ruined  buildings,  as  well  as  by  fragments  of  columns,  some  of 
which    are    of  beautiful    red  granite.    This    agrees   with    Van 
Egmont's  representation,  that  the  old  city  began  at  some  distance 
to  the  north  of  the  present  town,  extending  along  the  side  of  the 
lake  beyond  the  Baths  of  Emmaus,  which  are  about  a  mile  from 
the  modern  town,  to  the  south  of  it.    '  In  our  way  thither,'  says 
the  last-mentioned  traveller,  'we  plainly  saw  the  foundations  of  the 
old  city,  and  the  remains  of  bulwarks  erected  on  frustums  of 
pillars.    In  short,  the  whole  road  to  the  bath,  and  even  some  dis- 
tance beyond  it,  was  full  of  ruins  of  walls ;  and  near  it  we  saw  the 
ruins  of  a  gate.'    These  walls  were  continued  to  the  mountains 
which  confined  the  city  towards  the  west,  so  that  its  breadth  could 
not  exceed  half  a  mile.    The  wall  beyond  the  baths,  which  runs 
from  the  lake  to  the  mountain's  side,  is,  however,  supposed  by  Mr. 
Banks  to  be  rather  the  fortification  of  Vespasian's  camp.    Pococke 
places  the  baths  a  quarter  of  a  mile  south  of  the  walls  of  old 
Tiberias.    The  ancient  name  of  Ernmaus,  which  signifies  baths, 
is  still  preserved  in  the  Arabic  Hamam,  by  which  the  place  is  now 
called.    The  waters  are  much  resorted  to,  being  esteemed  good  for 
all  sorts  of  pains  and  tumors,  and  even  for  the  gout.    Dr.  Richardson 
found  the  Pasha  of  Acre  encamped  here,  with  a  numerous  retinue ; 
having  been  advised  to  use  the  baths,  by  his  medical  attendant, 
who,  was  a  Frank.    At  a  little  distance  from  him,  Lady  Hester 
Stanhope  had  taken  up  her  residence  in  a  mosque.     '  Not  having 
any  thermometer,'  says  Dr.  R, '  I  could  not  ascertain  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  spring;  but  it  is  so  hot,  that  the  hand  could  not  endure 
it ;  and  the  water  must  remain  twelve  hours  in  the  bath,  before  it 
can  be  used  ;  and  then  1  should  consider  it  as  above  one  100°.    It 
contains  a  strong  solution  of  common  salt,  with  a  considerable 
intermixture  of  iron  and  sulphur.'     Pococke,  who  brought  away  a 
bottle  of  the  waters,  says,  that  they  were  found  to  hold  a  cousidera- 
bleoquantity  of  gross  fixed  vitriol,  some  alum,  and  a  mineral  salt.' 
He  observed  a  red  sediment  upon  the  stones.    Van  Egmont  and 
Heyman  state,  that  they  resemble  in  quality  those  of  Aix  la  Cha- 
pelle.    '  Our  curiosity,'  they  say, « led  us  to  go  into  the  bath,  the 


404  SKETCHES  OF  PALESTINE. 

water  of  which  was  so  hot  as  not  easily  to  be  endured ;  but,  to 
render  it  more  temperate,  we  ordered  the  passage  through  which 
it  runs  into  the  basin,  to  be  stopped.  The  inhabitants  of  Tiberias 
have  built  here  a  small  house  with  a  cupola;  but  there  seems  to 
have  been  formerly  a  much  more  splendid  edifice,  as  the  baths 
were  very  famous.  The  water  rises  something  higher,  whence  it 
is  conducted  into  a  stone  basin.  This  water  is  so  salt  as  to  com- 
municate a  brackish  taste  to  that  of  the  lake  near  it.'  Hassalquist 
has  given  a  still  more  minute  account,  which  Dr.  Clarke  has 
evidently  overlooked  in  referring  to  him.  'The  fountain  or 
source,'  he  says, '  is  at  the  foot  of  a  mountain,  at  the  distance  of  a 

Sistol-shot  from  the  Lake  Gennesareth,  and  a  quarter  of  a  league 
•om  the  coasts  of  Tiberias.  The  mountain  consists  of  a  black  and 
brittle  sulphureous  stone,  which  is  only  to  be  found  in  large  masses 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Tiberias,  but  in  loose  stones  also  on  the 
coast  of  the  Dead  Sea,  as  well  as  here.  They  cut  millstones  out 
of  it  in  this  place,  which  are  sent  by  water  from  Acre  to  Egypt.  I 
saw  an  incredible  quantity  of  them  at  Damietta.  The  spring 
which  comes  from  the  mountain  is  in  diameter  equal  to  that  of  a 
man's  arm,  and  there  is  one  only.  The  water  is  so  hot,  that  the 
hand  may  be  put  into  it  without  scalding,  but  it  cannot  be  kept 
there  long:  consequently,  it  is  not  boiling  hot,  but  the  next  degree 
to  it.  It  has  a  strong  sulphureous  smell.  It  tastes  bitter,  and 
something  like  common  salt.  The  sediment  deposited  by  it  is 
black,  as  thick  as  paste,  smells  strongly  of  sulphur,  and  is  covered 
with  two  skins,  or  cuticles,  of  which  that  beneath  is  of  a  fine  dark- 
green  color,  and  the  uppermost  of  a  light  rusty  color.  At  the 
mouth  of  the  outlet,  where  the  water  formed  little  cascades  over 
the  stones,  the  first-mentioned  cuticle  alone  was  found,  and  so 
much  resembled  a  conferva,  that  one  might  easily  have  taken  this, 
that  belongs  to  the  mineral  kingdom,  for  a  vegetable  production  j 
but,  nearer  the  river,  where  the  water  stood  still,  one  might  see 
both  skins,  the  yellow  uppermost,  and  under  it  the  green.'  At  that 
time  (1750),  the  waters  appear  to  have  been  neglected,  and  the 
'miserable  bathing  house'  was  not  kept  in  repair. 

It  seems  at  first  difficult  to  account  for  the  statement  given  by 
this  usually  correct  writer,  that  there  is  but  one  spring,  when 
Captain  Mangles  states  that  there  are  three ;  but  Mr.  Buckingham's 
minute  and  lively  description  explains  the  apparent  discrepancy. 

*  Leaving  the  town  at  the  western  gate,  we  pursued  our  course 
southerly  along  its  wall,  and  came  to  some  scattered  ruins  of  the 
old  city  of  Tiberias ;  among  which  we  observed  many  founda- 
tions of  buildings,  some  fragments  of  others  still  standing,  and 
both  grey  and  red  granite  columns,  some  portions  of  the  latter 
being  at  least  four  feet  in  diameter ;  but  among  the  whole,  we  saw 
neither  ornamented  capitals  nor  sculptured  stones  of  any  kind, 
though  the  city  is  known  to  have  been  a  considerable  one. 

'In  our  way,  we  passed  an  old  tree,  standing  amid  these  ruins, 
and  observed  its  branches  to  be  hung  with  rags  of  every  hue  and 


SKETCHES  OF   PALESTINE.  405 

color,  no  doubt  the  offerings  of  those  who  either  expected  or  had 
received  benefit  from  the  springs  in  the  road  to  which  it  lay. 
Throughout  the  cliffs  of  the  overhanging  mountain  on  the  west, 
are  rude  grottoes  at  different  heights ;  and  opposite  to  the  tree  are 
two  arched  caves,  one  of  them  having  a  square  door  of  entrance 
beneath  the  arch,  and  both  of  them  being  apparently  executed  with 
care.  We  had  not  time  to  examine  them,  though  we  conceived 
them  to  have  been  most  probably  ancient  sepulchres. 

'  In  less  than  an  hour  after  our  leaving  the  town,  we  arrived  at 
the  baths.  The  present  building,  erected  over  the  springs  here,  is 
small  and  mean,  and  is  altogether  the  work  of  Mahommedans.  It 
is  within  a  few  yards  of  the  edge  of  the  lake,  and  contains  a  bath 
for  males  and  a  bath  for  females,  each  with  their  separate  apartment 
annexed.  Over  the  door  of  the  former  is  an  Arabic  inscription ; 
ascending  to  this  door  by  a  few  steps,  it  leads  to  an  outer  room, 
with  an  open  window,  a  hearth  for  preparing  coffee,  and  a  small 
closet  for  the  use  of  the  attendant.  Within  this  is  the  bath  itself,  a 
square  room  of  about  eighteen  or  twenty  feet,  covered  with  a  low 
dome,  and  having  benches  in  recesses  on  each  side.  The  cistern 
for  containing  the  hot  water  is  in  the  centre  of  this  room,  and  is 
sunk  below  the  pavement;  it  is  a  square  of  eight  or  nine  feet  only, 
and  the  spring  rises  to  supply  it  through  a  small  head  of  some  ani- 
mal ;  but  this  is  so  badly  executed,  that  it  is  difficult  to  decide  for 
what  it  was  intended.  My  thermometer  rose  here  instantly  to  130°, 
which  was  its  utmost  limit ;  but  the  heat  of  the  water  was  certainly 
greater.  It  was  painful  to  the  hand  as  it  issued  from  the  spout,  and 
could  only  be  borne  gradually  by  those  who  bathed  in  the  cistern. 

'  There  is  here  only  an  old  man  and  a  little  boy  to  hold  the  horses, 
and  make  coffee  for  the  visitors ;  and  those  who  bathe,  strip  in  the 
inner  room,  and  wash  themselves  in  the  cistern,  without  being  fur- 
nished with  cloths,  carpets,  cushions,  or  any  of  the  usual  comforts 
of  a  Turkish  bath.  The  whole  establishment,  indeed,  is  of  the 
poorest  kind,  and  the  sight  of  tfee  interior  is  rather  disgusting  than 
inviting. 

'  At  this  bath  we  met  with  a  soldier  whom  they  called  Mahom- 
med  Mumlouk,  and  I  learnt  that  he  was  a  German  by  birth,  having 
become  a  Mamlouk  and  Mahommedan  when  a  boy.  He  was  now 
the  basuadar  or  treasurer  to  the  Agha  of  Tabareeah,  and  was  so 
completely  a  Turk  as  to  profess,  that  he  would  not  willingly  return 
to  his  native  country,  even  if  he  could  do  so  under  the  most  favor- 
able circumstances.  He  spoke  the  Turkish  and  Arabic  languages 
equally  well ;  and  it  was  in  the  latter  that  we  conversed,  as  he  had 
entirely  forgotten  his  native  tongue,  though  not  more  than  thirty - 
five  years  of  age. 

'Besides  the  spring  which  supplies  the  present  baths,  there  are 
several  others  near  it,  all  rising  close  to  the  edge  of  the  lake,  and  all 
equally  hot,  finely  transparent,  and  slightly  sulphureous,  resembling 
exactly  the  spring  at  El-Hame.  There  are  also  extensive  ruins 
around,  which  are  most  probably  the  remains  of  Roman  edifices ; 


406  SKETCHES  OF  PALESTINE. 

though  that  which  has  heen  taken  for  the  remains  of  a  theatre,  ap- 
pears rather  to  have  been  the  choir  of  an  early  Christian  church. 
Among  them  all,  there  is  nothing,  however,  either  interesting  or 
definite.  We  quitted  this  spot  to  return  to  the  town,  and  in  our 
way  by  the  bath,  saw  a  party  of  Jewish  women  just  coming  out 
from  the  female  apartment.  Their  conversation  was  in  German  : 
and,  on  inquiry,  they  said  that  they  had  come  from  Vienna  with 
their  husbands,  to  end  their  days  in  the  land  of  their  fathers.  In 
our  way  back  from  hence,  we  were  met  by  a  party  of  Moslems, 
who  conceiving  me  from  my  dress  and  white  turban,  to  be  of  their 
faith,  gave  us  the  usual  salute,  which  1  returned  without  scruple ; 
but  our  guide  was  so  shocked  at  the  interchange  of  forbidden  salu- 
tations between  a  Christian  and  a  Mohammedan,  that  he  expressed 
his  confidence  in  its  ending  in  some  unlucky  accident  to  us.  To 
avert  this,  however,  from  his  own  head,  he  took  a  large  stone  from 
the  road,  and  after  spitting  on  it,  turned  that  part  towards  the  north, 
repeating  a  short  Arabic  prayer  at  the  same  time.  Besides  the  pres- 
ent incident,  1  had  observed  on  several  occasions,  that,  in  this  coun- 
try, set  forms  of  expressions  are  regarded  as  appropriate  to  men  of 
different  faiths,  and  even  different  ranks  in  life ;  and  that  nothing  is 
moie  necessary  for  a  traveller,  than  to  acquaint  himself  with  those  mi- 
nute shades  of  difference ;  as  they  serve,  like  the  watchword  of  an 
army,  to  distinguish  friends  from  foes;  and  any  errors  therein  might 
produce  the  most  alarming  consequences. 

'  On  our  way  we  met  a  Jewish  funeral,  attended  by  a  party  of 
about  fifty  persons,  all  male.  A  group  of  half  a  dozen  walked  be- 
fore, but  without  any  apparent  regard  to  order,  and  all  seemed  en- 
gaged in  humming  indistinctly  hymns,  or  prayers,  or  lamentations ; 
for  they  might  have  been  either,  as  far  as  we  could  distinguish  by 
the  tone  and  the  manner  of  their  utterance.  The  corpse  followed, 
wrapped  in  linen,  without  a  coffin,  and  slung  on  cords  between  two 
poles  borne  on  men's  shoulders,  with  its  feet  foremost.  A  funeral 
service  was  said  over  it  at  the  grave,  and  it  was  sunk  into  its  mo- 
ther earth  in  peace.' 

This  traveller  notices  some  ancient  baths,  to  the  north  of  Tiberias 
also,  which  appear  to  have  escaped  the  observation  of  preceding 
travellers.  About  an  hour  from  Tiberias,  pursuing  a  northward 
course  along  the  border  of  the  lake,  became  to  the  remains  of  three, 
close  to  the  water's  edge,  which  he  describes  as  so  many  large  cir- 
cular cisterns,  quite  open,  and  not  appearing  to  have  ever  been  in- 
closed in  a  covered  building.  '  They  were  all,'  he  continues,  '  near- 
ly of  the  same  size  ;  the  one  around  the  edge  of  which  I  walked, 
being  eighty  paces  in  circumference,  and  from  twelve  to  fifteen  feet 
deep.  Each  of  these  was  distant  from  the  other  about  one  hun- 
dred yards,  ranging  along  the  beach  of  the  lake,  and  each  was  sup- 
plied by  a  separate  spring,  rising  also  near  the  sea.  The  water  was 
in  all  of  them  beautifully  transparent,  of  a  slightly  sulphureous 
taste,  and  of  a  light-green  color,  as  at  the  bath  near  Oom  Kais  ;  but 
the  heat  of  the  stream  here  was  scarcely  greater  than  that  of  the  at- 


SKETCHES  OF  PALESTINE.  407 

mosphere,  as  the  thermometer  in  the  air  stood  at  84°,  and  when  im- 
mersed in  water,  rose  to  86°.  The  first  of  these  circular  cisterns 
had  a  stone  bench  or  pathway  running  round  its  interior,  for  the 
accomodation  of  the  bathers,  and  the  last  had  a  similar  work  on  the 
outside ;  in  the  latter,  a  number  of  small  black  fish  were  seen 
swimming.  Each  of  the  baths  were  supplied  by  a  small  aqueduct 
from  its  separate  spring ;  and  there  were  appearances  of  a  semicir- 
cular wall  having  inclosed  them  all  within  one  area. 

Mr.  Joilifie  reports  the  estimated  number  of  inhabitants  to  be 
4000,  two  thirds  of  which  are  Jews.    Burckhardt's  account  agrees 
with  this  as  to  numbers;  but  he  makes  the  proportion  of  Jews 
only  one  fourth.*     There  are.  he  says,  from  one  hundred  and  sixty 
to  two  hundred  Jewish  families,  of  which  ibrty  or  fifty  are  of 
Polish  origin  ;  the  rest  are  Jews  from  Spain,  Baibary,  and  differ- 
ent parts  of  Syria.     The  quarter  which  they  occupy  in  the  middle 
of  the  town,  had  lately  been  much  enlarged  by  the  purchase  of 
several  streets,  so  that  their  numbers  appear  to  be  on  the  increase. 
Tiberias  holds  out  to  the  Jews  peculiar  advantages.     They  enjoy 
here  perfect  religious  freedom  ;  besides  which,  Tiberias  is  one  of 
the  four  holy  cities  of  the  Talmud,  the  other  three  being  Saphet, 
Jerusalem,  and  Hebron.    '  It  is  esteemed  holy  ground,'  Burckhardt 
states,  '  because  Jacob  is  supposed   to  have  resided   here,f  and 
because  it  is  situated  on  the  Lake  of  Gennesareth ;  from  which, 
according  to  the  most  generally  received  opinion  of  the  Talmud, 
the  Messiah  is  to  rise.     It  is  a  received  dogma,  that  the  world  will 
return  to  its  primitive  chaos,  if  prayers  are  not  addressed  to  the 
God  of  Israel,  at  least  twice  a  week  in  the  four  holy  cities.     On 
this  account,  Jewish  devotees  from  all  parts  flock  to  these  cities ; 
and  three  or  four  missionaries  are  sent  abroad  every  year,  to  collect 
alms  for  the  support  of  these  religious  fraternities,  who  do  not  fail 
successfully  to  plead  this  imminent  danger  as  an  argument  for 
liberal   contributions.     One   missionary  is  sent  to   the  coasts  of 
Africa  from   Damietta  to  Mogadore;    another  to  the   coast    of 
tCurope  from  Venice  to  Gibraltar;  a  third  to  the  Archipelago, Con- 
stantinople ai,d  Anatolia ;  and  a  fourth  through  Syria.    The  charity 
of  the  Jews  of  London  is  appealed  to  from  time  to  time ;  but  the  Jews 
of  Gibraltar  have  the  reputation  of  being  more  liberal  than  any 
others,  and  are  stated  to  contribute  from  4  to  5000  Spanish  dollars 
annually.     The   Polish   Jews  settled   at  Tabaria,  are  supported 
almost  entirely  by  their  rich  countrymen  in  Bohemia  and  Poland ; 
and  the  Syrian  Jews  are  said  to  be  very  jealous  of  them.    When 
a  fresh  pilgrim  arrives,  bringing  a  little  money  with  him,  the  exor- 
bitant demands  which  are  made  on  him  by  his  brethren,  either  for 
rent,  or  on  some  oilier  pretence,  soon  deprive  him  of  it,  and  leave 

*  Mr.  Buckingham  says,  that,  according  to  the  opinion  of  the  best  informed  residents, 
the  population  aoes  not  exceed  2000  souls,  of  whom  about  half  are  Jews. 

f  Perhaps  not  the  patriarch,  but  some  great  rabbin  of  that  name.  Burckhardt  speaks  of 
&  great  rabbin,  who,  he  was  informed,  lies  buried  at  Tiberias,  with  14,000  of  his  scholar* 
tound  him ! 


408  SKETCHES  OF  PALESTINE. 

him  a  pensioner  on  his  nation.  The  missionaries  generally 
some  property,  as  they  are  allowed  teri  per  cent,  upon  the  alms 
they  collect.  But  many  of  the  Jews,  who  have  been  led  to  beg 
their  way  to  Palestine  by  their  delusive  representations,  are  ill 
satisfied  with  the  Land  of  Promise ;  and  some  few  are  fortunate 
enough  to  find  their  way  home  again.  The  greater  number,  how- 
ever, console  themselves  with  the  inestimable  advantage  of  laying 
their  bones  in  the  Holy  Land. 

The  Jewish  devotees  pass  the  whole  day  in  the  schools  or  the 
synagogue,  reciting  the  Old  Testament  and  the  Talmud,  both  of 
which  many  of  them  know  entirely  by  heart.  They  all  write 
Hebrew ;  but  their  learning,  Burckhardt  says,  seems  to  be  on  a 
level  with  that  of  the  Turks.  He  mentions  some  beautiful  copies 
of  the  Pentateuch,  written  on  a  roll  of  leather,  which  he  saw  in  the 
Syrian  synagogue :  no  one  could  inform  him  of  their  age  or  histo- 
ry .  The  libraries  of  the  two  schools  are  moderately  stocked  with 
Hebrew  books,  printed  chiefly  at  Vienna  and  Venice.  They 
observe  here,  he  says,  a  singular  custom  in  the  public  service. 

'While  the  rabbin  recites  the  psalms  of  David,  or  the  prayers 
extracted  from  them,  the  congregation  frequently  imitate,  by  their 
voice  or  gesture,  the  meaning  of  some  remarkable  passages :  for 
example,  when  the  rabbin  pronounces  the  words, '  Praise  the  Lord 
with  the  sound  of  the  trumpet,'  they  imitate  the  sound  of  the 
trumpet  through  their  closed  fists.  When  '  a  horrible  tempest ' 
occurs,  they  puff'  and  blow  to  represent  a  storm ;  or  should  he 
mention  the  cries  of  the  righteous  in  distress,  they  all  set  up  a  loud 
screaming.'  And  sometimes,  we  are  told,  these  imitative  accom- 
paniments are  carried  on  in  a  singular  sort  of  fugue  or  concert ; 
while  some  are  blowing  the  storm,  others  having  already  begun 
the  cries  of  the  righteous ! 

The  Jews  marry  at  a  very  early  age.  It  is  not  uncommon, 
Burckhardt  affirms,  to  see  fathers  of  thirteen  years  of  age,  and 
mothers  of  eleven.  On  the  occasion  of  a  wedding,  they  traverse 
the  town  in  pompous  procession,  carrying  before  the  bride  the 
plate  of  almost  the  whole  community  ;  and  they  least  in  the  house 
of  the  bridegroom  for  seven  successive  days  and  nights.  '  The 
wedding  least  of  a  man  who  has  about  50/.  a-year,  (and  no  Jew 
can  live  with  his  family  on  less,)  will  often  cost  more  than  60Z.' 
Yet,  few  of  them  are  rich,  or  carry  on  any  merchandise.  When 
Burckhardt  was  at  Tiberias,  there  were  only  two  Jew  merchants 
resident  there,  who  were  men  of  property ;  and  they  were  styled 
by  the  devotees,  kafcrs,  or  unbelievers.  The  Rabbin  of  Tiberias, 
is  under  the  great  Rabbin  of  SzafTad  (Saphet),  who  pronounce* 
final  judgment  on  all  contested  points  of  law  and  religion. 


THE   END. 


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